<p>Gray Wolf Ridge is a spur of the northeastern Olympic Mountains in Washingtons Olympic Peninsula. Arcing northeast from the Mount Deception - Needles - Mount Clark - Mount Walkinshaw massif, Gray Wolf Ridge is covered by alpine and subalpine forests up to the timberline, leaving the upper elevations of the ridges six rocky peaks vegetated only by fragile alpine meadows. The ridge and its component mountains are markedly steep, as is its primary access route, the Maynard Burn Trail  of Olympic National Forest. The higher, western segment of Gray Wolf Ridge lies within the boundary of Olympic National Park.</p><br>
<p>Gray Wolf Mountain, at 7218 feet above sea level, is the ridges highest summit. It was first climbed by Leigh B. Lint in 1928. Other distinct peaks include 7076 (7076), Baldy (6797), Tyler Peak (6364), and Maynard Peak (5065), which forms the northeastern terminus of Gray Wolf Ridge. Gray Wolf River runs through the valley-bottom to the Ridges north; Royal Creek and the Dungeness River flow through the valley along the Ridge&#39;s east and south.</p><br>
<p>Häme Castle  is a medieval castle in Hämeenlinna, Finland. Originally located on an island, the castle now sits on the coast of lake Vanajavesi. The castle consists of a central keep and surrounding curtain walls, enclosed by a moat. The keep originally had five turrets, but only two are apparent today. The curtain wall has a gatehouse, battlements, an octagonal brick corner turret, and a round gun turret. The lower tiers of the keep and curtain wall are of masoned granite and the upper tiers are red brickwork.</p><br>
<p>Although the exact date is disputed, the castle is generally considered to have been constructed in the 13th century. In addition to its status as a military fortress and home for Swedish nobility, the castle has seen use as a prison, and is currently a museum operated by the Finnish National Board of Antiquities. The castle is one of the main tourist attractions of southern Finland, being the centerpiece of the city and a popular venue for events, including renaissance fairs.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The castles age is disputed. Traditionally, the construction of the castle has been connected to Birger Jarls Second Swedish Crusade, which would date the castle in the mid-13th century. However, there are no archeological finds from the castle that can be firmly dated to a period earlier than the 1320s. An earlier fortification from the early 1300s only some 20 km away in Hakoinen also contests Häme Castle&#39;s age, as only one castle ("Tauestahus") is listed in Tavastia in a royal document from 1308. Also, the Russian Novgorod First Chronicle only mentions one castle during their plundering of Tavastia in 1311, its description also matching with the castle in Hakoinen.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1500s, under Gustav I, the castle lost much of its military importance. Some restoration was conducted in the early 1600s, and in 1639, the castles nearby settlements gained official city status as Hämeenlinna. The castle continued to be neglected by Swedish rule throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, as its military interests shifted to the southern Baltic sea. Häme Castle was briefly ceded to the Russian army during the Great Northern War, after which the castles defensive systems were upgraded with bastions. After the Finnish War, when Finland became the Grand Duchy of Finland under Russian rule, the castle was turned into a prison. It served as such until 1953, when massive restoration work started. The castle has been a public museum since 1979, the facilities of which can also be rented for private events.</p><br>
<p>Brewerytown is a neighborhood in the North Philadelphia district of the city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. An unofficial region, Brewerytown runs approximately between the Schuylkill River&#39;s eastern bank and 25th Street, bounded by Cecil B. Moore Avenue to the north and Parrish Street to the south. Brewerytown got its name because of the numerous breweries that were located along the Schuylkill during the late 19th century and early 20th century. It is now primarily a residential neighborhood, with a growing and active commercial sector along Girard Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest indications of this legacy can be seen on maps from the 1860s, which list several minor brewers and distillation facilities in this region. Proximity to the river and nearby farmland allowed these establishments to flourish, and as demands increased, so did development in Brewerytown. Much of the expansion into the early 20th century was handled by architect Otto Wolf, who oversaw the construction of over 60 buildings in the area, bringing a distinct German texture to the houses, saloons, and breweries of the area. Some of his buildings are still standing, including the Bergdoll Brewing complex, and F.A. Poth Brewing. Columbia Park, the first home of the Philadelphia Athletics major league baseball team, was located at 30th and Oxford Streets in the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>At its peak, 700 breweries operated across Philadelphia, several in a ten-block area of Brewerytown. Unfortunately, with the collapse of local industry later in the 20th century, originally started by the implementation of Prohibition in the United States, and beer production moving primarily to the Midwest, every single brewer had vanished by 1987. The industry has slowly returned to the city, but at nowhere near the capacity of its heyday. As of 2016, the only active brewery in Brewerytown is Crime & Punishment Brewing Company, which opened in 2015. During this late 20th-century slump, the entirety of North Philadelphia, Brewerytown included, was hit hard by economic depressions. Much of the area was deemed blighted by the city government.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, the Brewerytown Historic District was certified by the National Register of Historic Places. The district contains 380 buildings and is roughly bounded by 30th St., Girard Ave., 32nd St. and Glenwood Ave.</p><br>
<h3>Breweries</h3><br>
<p>Breweries that operated in the neighborhood included:</p><br>
<p>Bergner & Engel Brewing Company (Thompson Street between 32nd and 33rd, east side)</p><br>
<p>Charles Eisner Brewery (Thompson Street between 32nd and 33rd, west side)</p><br>
<p>F. A. Poth Brewing Company (31st & Jefferson Streets, NW corner)</p><br>
<p>H. Mueller Centennial Brewery (31st & Jefferson Streets, NE corner)</p><br>
<p>J. & P. Baltz Brewing Company (31st & Thompson Streets)</p><br>
<p>Arnholt & Schaefer Brewing Company (31st and Thompson Streets, NE corner)</p><br>
<p>G. Keller&#39;s Brewery (31st Street, west side, between Jefferson and Master)</p><br>
<p>J. Bentz&#39; Brewery (31st Street, west side, between Jefferson and Master)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Perot Brewery (31st and Master Streets, NW corner)</p><br>
<p>W. S. Perot (32nd and Thompson Streets, NW corner)</p><br>
<p>Goldbeck & Eisele (31st and Thompson Streets, NE corner)</p><br>
<p>Geo. F. Rothacker Brewery (31st Street, West side, between Thompson and Master)</p><br>
<p>Eble & Herter (33rd Street and Pennsylvania Avenue)</p><br>
<p>Francis Orth (later Burg & Pfaender, later Bergdoll Brewery; 33rd Street, south of Master Street)</p><br>
<p>Henzler & Flach Brewery</p><br>
<p>City Park Brewery (29th and Parrish Streets)</p><br>
<p>Commonwealth Brewing Company (28th and Cambridge Streets)</p><br>
<p>Keystone State Brewery (27th and Parrish Streets)</p><br>
<p>Peter Schemm and Son (West College Ave. and Poplar Street)</p><br>
<p>India Pale Ale Brewery (38th Street and Girard Avenue)</p><br>
<p>Michel Gosse (27th & Thompson Streets)</p><br>
<p>The Little Theatre in Rochester, New York, commonly known as "The Little" is a movie theatre located on historic East Avenue in downtown Rochester, New York and a modest non-profit multiplex specializing in art film, including independent and foreign productions outside the United States.</p><br>
<p>Founded in 1928, The Little is one of the oldest active movie theaters built specifically to show films in the US, serving as an alternative venue for cinema of higher artistic caliber than what was popular at the time. To remain in business, The Little has created a unique theater experience for its patrons strikingly different from that of standard commercial cinemas. The Little typically shows films that never make it to the large theater chains, either due to lack of publicity, popularity, exposure, or content that is too risky and/or inappropriate for larger audiences (such as NC-17 rated films). Foreign films, independent films, some documentary films and art films are its common fare.</p><br>
<p>The Little is unique in the area in treating anime films as artistic cinema, and titles by the likes of Hayao Miyazaki always find their way to The Little&#39;s screens. Critics at The Little provide a synopsis of any film they intend to show, both on their website and posted around their ticket booths on the street.</p><br>
<p>The Little also offers live musical performances from local musicians, a rotating art gallery of local artists, and a cafe. Additionally, The Little serves as a performance venue during the Rochester International Jazz Festival each June. The Little is also the home of the Little Theatre Film Society, a group of theater aficionados in the Rochester area. The Little survives largely due to the hard work and dedication of the societys members. The theater is currently operated with the participation of the WXXI Public Broadcasting Council, a non-profit community organization which owns and operates the regions principal public radio and television stations.</p><br>
<p>The Little has become part of Rochester&#39;s extensive theater culture. Rochester has a rich history in cinema, being the home of the Eastman Kodak company and the George Eastman House International Museum of Photography and Film. Kodak film was historically used in a majority of motion pictures (and still is today), creating close ties to the movie industry in Rochester society. The Little Theatre Film Society holds film festivals throughout the year, many of them hosted at The Little. The theatre is well known by any serious cinema patron in Rochester for providing an alternative to standard Hollywood commercial fare. The Little has also avoided the negative reputation for snobbishness that is sometimes associated with art house cinema, cultivating the image of a venue for anyone who is simply seeking an alternative or a community that celebrates cinema.</p><br>
<p>The word "Theatre" is often used instead of the word "Theater" to distinguish between art house cinemas and the more common variety. Theatre is an older form of the word, though both words share the same literal meaning. The Little uses the older form both to make this distinction and due to the age of the theater itself.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, Harts Local Grocers opened its doors next to the Little Theatre, catering to the Rochester downtown communitys grocery shopping needs.</p><br>
<p>Crowsnest Mountain is a scenic mountain in the southern Canadian Rockies of southwestern Alberta, Canada. It can be seen from Alberta Highway 3 west of the town of Coleman in the Crowsnest Pass. The mountain was originally named by the local Cree Indians due to the ravens that nested in the area. The scrambling route on the north side was first ascended in 1915.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The grey rocks exposed in the cliffs on the upper part of Crowsnest Mountain are limestones and shales of Late Devonian to Early Mississippian age (the Palliser at the base, overlain by the Exshaw and Banff, with the Livingstone Formation at the summit). They were moved up from the west along the Lewis thrust fault and emplaced over younger rocks (the Late Cretaceous Belly River Formation) that underlie the wooded lower slopes of the mountain. During that movement they were formed into a broad syncline by fault-bend folding.</p><br>
<p>The Devonian to Mississippian rocks are part of the Lewis thrust sheet which was originally continuous from the High Rock Range immediately to the west. The thrust sheet has since been cut through by erosion along Allison Creek, however, leaving Crowsnest Mountain and its northerly neighbour, Seven Sisters Mountain, standing together as an isolated klippe.</p><br>
<p>The Royal Theatre is an opera house and concert hall located in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. It was designed in 1912 by William D’Oyly Hamilton Rochfort and Eben W. Sankey. Rochfort was very active as an architect in Victoria from 1908 until he left for the war in 1914. Opened in 1913, the theatre has operated under many guises, including cinema , opera, and concerts.</p><br>
<p>The theatre was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1987.</p><br>
<p>Today, the theatre has a capacity of 1,416. It is a popular venue, staging concerts by Victoria Symphony and the Victoria Philharmonic Choir as well as productions by Pacific Opera Victoria, though it is also considered a receiving house, and regularly books "outside acts".</p><br>
<h2>Notable visiting performers</h2><br>
<p>Sarah Bernhardt</p><br>
<p>Carlos Montoya</p><br>
<p>Mikhail Baryshnikov</p><br>
<p>Luciano Pavarotti</p><br>
<p>The American Swedish Institute  is a museum and cultural center in the Phillips West neighborhood of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. The organization is dedicated to the preservation and study of the historic role Sweden and Americans of Swedish heritage have played in US culture and history. The museum complex includes the Swan Turnblad Mansion, completed in 1910, and the adjoining Nelson Cultural Center, completed in 2012.</p><br>
<p>Today, ASI serves as a gathering place for all people to share experiences around themes of culture, migration, the environment and the arts, informed by enduring links to Sweden. The museum offers exhibitions from Sweden and the Nordic region, programming for youth and family, and in recent years, has expanded its performing arts offerings. The museum&#39;s restaurant, FIKA, was named "Best Lunch In Minnesota" by the Minneapolis Star Tribune in 2013 for its New Nordic cuisine.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The American Swedish Institute is housed in a turn-of-the-20th-century mansion that was built for Swedish immigrants Swan and Christina Turnblad. Swan Turnblad immigrated with his family to the United States in 1868 at the age of eight. His parents made the decision to leave their farm in the famine-ridden area of Småland, Sweden. The family settled in a Swedish community called Vasa in southern Minnesota where they joined relatives who had settled in the area earlier.</p><br>
<p>Swan Turnblad was not content to continue in the family farming tradition. In 1879 Turnblad left Vasa for Minneapolis where he lived the quintessential rags-to-riches American success story. After he moved to Minneapolis, Turnblad worked at several Swedish language newspapers as a typesetter. His interest in the printing industry eventually led to his success as publisher of the Swedish language newspaper Svenska Amerikanska Posten. Within ten years he was the sole owner. Under his management, circulation of the weekly paper soared to over 40,000, a substantial increase from the 1,400 it initially claimed. This publication was likely the principal source of Turnblad&#39;s wealth.</p><br>
<p>The success of the paper was a result of Turnblad&#39;s aggressive management style, as well as the large numbers of Swedish immigrants who supported it. He created a technically advanced newspaper by using the best printing equipment available. He was the first Swedish publisher in America to set his paper by Linotype machine. In 1903 Svenska Amerikanska Posten became the first Swedish language paper to use a duplex rotary color printing press, enabling the creation of color illustrations.</p><br>
<p>In Minneapolis Swan met and married Christina Nilsson. She, like Turnblad, had come to America from Sweden with her family. Her family settled in Worthington, Minnesota, in 1876 when Christina was 15. Her first job in America paid no wages, but gave her work experience and English language training. Later she worked as a waitress for one year. In 1882 Christina moved to Minneapolis where she met the young newspaper man at a Good Templar meeting. They were married in 1883 and their only child, Lillian Zenobia, was born a year later.</p><br>
<p>In the early 20th century the Turnblads started to plan the building of their palatial estate. Their many trips to Europe certainly influenced their decision on the stately chateau style of the mansion and the ornate designs of the interior. The property on Park Avenue was purchased in 1903 and plans were drawn up by the Minneapolis architectural firm of Christopher A. Boehme and Victor Cordella. The structure took nearly five years to build. The Turnblads did not take out a mortgage on this property during construction. Bills were paid as they came due and there are no records of construction costs. When the museum was founded in 1929, the Minneapolis Tribune reported, "the cost is believed to have been close to $1,000,000 although this is a matter the builder does not discuss."</p><br>
<p>The transition from private residence to museum happened in 1929 when the family donated the house and the newspaper to establish the American Institute for Swedish Arts, Literature and Science (later changed to the American Swedish Institute). Turnblad stated that he had long planned for the home to be a Swedish-American institute. He was quoted as saying, "many persons may have wondered what a small family like ours, a family which had not great social ambitions, wanted with so big a house. Perhaps they can guess now." The mansion is on the National Register of Historic Places. It was listed for its local significance in architecture, art, and education.</p><br>
<p>The second floor of the mansion underwent restoration in 1995 to rebuild damaged plaster moldings, and restore their gold leaf and paint to match undamaged regions. The work received a Heritage Preservation Award.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, ASI opened a 34,000 ft&sup2; addition designed by HGA Architects of Minneapolis. The addition includes new gallery space, craft workshop, glass-enclosed reception area, gift shop, restaurant (FIKA), and spaces for events such as concerts, lectures, and community gatherings. The addition was dedicated by King Carl XVI Gustaf and Queen Silvia of Sweden.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibits at ASI</h2><br>
<p>Exhibits at ASI have included:</p><br>
<p>The Watercolor Worlds of Lars Lerin - Lars Lerin is a contemporary Nordic artist whose work is described as "both impressionistic and highly detailed".</p><br>
<p>Nordic: A Photographic Essay of Landscapes, Food and People - photography from the Michelin Star-winning chef, Magnus Nilsson.</p><br>
<p>Eight Seasons in Sápmi, the Land of the Sámi People - the art and culture of the Sami people from the northernmost regions of Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Russia.</p><br>
<p>Papercut! The Incredible Psaligraphy of Karen Bit Vejle - an exhibit of 54 paper creations.</p><br>
<p>Nobel Creations - Couture designs from students of Beckmans College of Design, on loan from the Nobel Museum in Stockholm, Sweden.</p><br>
<h3>Annual Christmas exhibit</h3><br>
<p>In the 1950s, ASI began displays that showed how Christmas is celebrated in different Scandinavian countries. This has evolved into an annual display where each room in the mansion is decorated to represent a different country: Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and Denmark. Recently, the museum has added a "guest country" to the display with a Navidad room from Mexico in 2014 and a Russian Christmas room in 2015.</p><br>
<p>Amykles  is a village in Laconia, southern Greece. It lies in the plain by the Eurotas river, 6 km south of Sparta, east of the Taygetus mountains, along the Greek National Road 39 from Sparta to Gytheio. It was named after the ancient town Amyclae, the ruins of which are situated 2 km northeast of the village.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<h2>Ancient Amyclae</h2><br>
<p>According to some sources, the ancient town Amyclae (Ἀμύκλαι - Amyklai) was founded by Amyclas of Sparta, the son of Lacedaemon. In the second century AD, the traveller Pausanias was informed that the archaic site of Amyklai had its ancient origin as an Achaean stronghold that predated the "Dorian invasion", and modern archaeology has supported that view. The Bronze Age settlement lay on the slopes above the modern village of Amykles. It was conquered by the Spartans as the fifth of the surrounding settlements whose subjection initiated the history of Sparta, in the eighth century BC; the inhabitants of Amyklai took their places among the perioikoi, members of autonomous groups of free but non-citizen inhabitants of Sparta.</p><br>
<p>About the same time, there was erected at Amyklai the Sanctuary of Apollo, enclosing within its temenos the tumulus of Hyakinthos, a pre-Hellene divinity whose cult was conflated with that of Apollo, in the annual festival of the Hyakinthia. There have been finds of sub-Mycenaean votive figures and of votive figures from the Geometric period, but with a gap in continuity between them: "it is clear that a radical reinterpretation has taken place" Walter Burkert has observed, instancing many examples of this break in cult during the "Greek Dark Ages", including Amyklai (1985, p 49).</p><br>
<p>After the Spartan conquest, Amyklai continued to hold the Gymnopaideia and the Hyakinthia, now celebrated in honor of Apollo Amyklaios, given an even later political interpretation, as celebrating "the political reconciliation of Doric Sparta (Apollo) with the Achaian population of Amyklai (Hyakinthos)" (Hellenic Ministry of Culture). Nothing is heard yet of Apollos sister Artemis at Amyklai, Burkert has pointed out. In the seventh or early sixth century, a colossal archaic helmeted effigy was made of bronze, taking the semi-aniconic form of a stout column with arms, holding a spear as well as the more familiar bow: "ancient and made without artistry," Pausanias thought. "Except for the face and the tips of its feet and hands it looks like a bronze pillar. It has a helmet on its head, and a spear and a bow in its hands. The base of the statue is shaped like an altar, and Hyakinthos is said to be buried in it." (Description, III.6). In the mid-sixth century the face of Apollo had been veneered with gold from Lydia, the gift of Croesus. Later in the sixth century, Bathycles of Magnesia designed the Doric-Ionic temple complex later known as the "throne of Apollo". The archaic cult statue, set on the podium that was constructed to enclose the chthonic altar dedicated to Hyakinthos, was surrounded by a virtual encyclopedia of Greek mythology, to judge from Pausanias enumeration of the subjects of the reliefs. The podium contained the altar to Hyakinthos and was faced with bas-reliefs and there were more bas-reliefs on the stoa-like building that surrounded on three sides the colossal column-shaped statue of the god. The analemma and peribolos of the sanctuary have been excavated. Architectural fragments show that the architecture combined Doric and Ionic architectural orders: some are exhibited in the Sparta Museum.</p><br>
<p>Beside the cult of Apollo, the people of Amyklai also worshipped Dionysus, as Dionysos Psilax. Pausanias noted that psila was Doric for wings&mdash; "wine uplifts men and lightens their spirit no less than wings do birds" he added by way of gloss: apparently it was hard for him to imagine an archaic winged Dionysus.</p><br>
<p>Traditionally Amyklai was associated the residence of Tyndareus and his sons, the Dioscures.</p><br>
<p>The South Col is the sharp-edged notch or pass between Mount Everest and Lhotse, the highest and fourth highest mountains in the world, respectively. When climbers attempt to climb Everest from the southeast ridge in Nepal, their final camp  is situated on the South Col. The South Col is typically ravaged by high winds, leaving it free of significant snow accumulation.</p><br>
<p>The South Col was first reached by Edouard Wyss-Dunant&#39;s 1952 Swiss Mount Everest Expedition that failed to reach the summit. The following year, when Mount Everest was first climbed, Wilfrid Noyce and the Sherpa Annullu were the first climbers on the expedition to reach the col. According to John Hunt, the expedition leader:</p><br>
<p>Once on the South Col, climbers have entered the death zone &ndash; Altitude sickness is a significant threat at this elevation and can easily prove fatal. It is also difficult to sleep, and most climbers&#39; digestive systems have significantly slowed or completely stopped. This is because it is more efficient at this altitude for the body to use stored energy sources than to digest new food. Most climbers will begin using supplemental oxygen here and have a maximum of only two or three days for making summit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp. Climbers rarely get a second chance to return to the South Col in a specific expedition.</p><br>
<p>In 2005 Didier Delsalle of France landed a Eurocopter AS350 B3 helicopter on South Col of Mount Everest. Two days later he also did his first landing on the summit of Mount Everest, and then he did this again.</p><br>
<p>Myohyang-san  is a mountain in North Korea. It is named after the mystic shapes and fragrances found in the area. It is a sacred site as, according to legend, it was the home of King Tangun, forefather of the Korean people.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Myohyang is a North Korean tourist attraction and visited by many national tourists. There are several hiking routes on the mountain. Apart from the view, tourists are attracted by the Pohyon temple, built in the 11th century, the Sangwon hermitage, the Kumgang hermitage, and the Habiro hermitage. The Ryongmun cavern is open to the public.</p><br>
<p>At Myohyang-san is the International Friendship Exhibition centre, dubbed the world&#39;s biggest treasure-house. On exhibit are presents received by North Korean leaders over the years. One building stores the presents given to Kim Il-sung, while a smaller one holds those given to his son Kim Jong-il.</p><br>
<p>The Hyangsan Hotel caters to luxury visitors, while the Chongchon Hotel is second-class.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>Much of the mountain is covered by mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest and protected in a 16,000 hectare national park. Some 7,000 hectare has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA).</p><br>
<h3>World Biosphere Reserve</h3><br>
<p>In 2009 UNESCO designated Mount Myohyang a world biosphere reserve, citing its cultural significance as well as the spectacular cliffs providing habitat for 30 endemic plant species, 16 plant species that are threatened globally and 12 endangered animal species.</p><br>
<p>Kuwŏlsan, or Mount Kuwol, is a mountain in South Hwanghae, North Korea. The mountain takes its name from the ninth month of the lunar calendar, because it is considered particularly attractive in that month. The mountain is a major summer resort in North Korea, attracting many domestic tourists.</p><br>
<p>Kuwolsan is home to the Sansong Revolutionary Site, the 9th century Woljong Temple and the stupas, as well as the 4th century Anak Tomb No. 3.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The highest peak of the mountain - the highest point in the short Kuwol range - is 954 m above sea level. There are several scenic routes through the mountain area. Natural attractions include rock formations, waterfalls and natural pools. Much of the mountain is covered by mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest and protected in an 18,000 ha national park. Some 1100 ha has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA).</p><br>
<p>Oberalp Pass   is a high mountain pass in the Swiss Alps connecting the cantons of Graubünden and Uri between Disentis and Andermatt.</p><br>
<h2>Winter closure</h2><br>
<p>The public road that crosses the pass is closed in winter, but the Furka-Oberalp railway line, now part of the Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn, runs year round and provides a limited shuttle for cars in winter (reservation required). When the road closes depends on snowfall and varies between the end of October and the beginning of December. The road opens again in spring, usually by the end of April but sometimes not until mid May.</p><br>
<p>In winter, a ski area extends to the Graubünden side, connecting the pass well into the Tujetsch territory to Dieni, near Rueras.</p><br>
<h2>Source of the Rhine river</h2><br>
<p>The Rhine springs from a source nearby (Tomasee), which is marked by a working lighthouse. A multiday trekking route is signposted across Oberalp pass and along the young Rhine called Senda Sursilvana.</p><br>
<p>Oberalpsee is located 20 m below, in the direction of Andermatt.</p><br>
<h2>Railway station</h2><br>
<p>Oberalppass railway station is located next to the Oberalppass road. It is at the base of the Oberalp ski area. The station is owned and run by the Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn. It has 3 platforms, one of which is a bay platform from Andermatt, and is often closed during the winter. The railway on both sides of the station is a single line, so Oberalppass is an important passing place.</p><br>
<p>Regional trains to Andermatt and Disentis/Mustér are operated hourly in each direction, with additional services to and from Andermatt at peak times during the ski season. The station also has several Glacier Express trains and, during the winter season when the adjacent road is closed, car shuttle trains passing through each day. The station has a waiting room. The station is the highest point on the Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn network.</p><br>
<h2>Ski Area</h2><br>
<p>The Oberalp Pass passes the Oberalp ski area, which is part of the Gotthard Oberalp Arena.</p><br>
<p>There are currently plans for the ski area to be linked up with Nätschen, the neighbouring mountain, which is also part of the Gotthard Oberalp Arena.</p><br>
<p>Saint Paul Island is the largest of the Pribilof Islands, a group of four Alaskan volcanic islands located in the Bering Sea between the United States and Russia. The city of St. Paul is the only residential area on the island. The three nearest islands to Saint Paul Island are Otter Island to the southwest, Saint George slightly to the south, and Walrus Island to the east.</p><br>
<p>St. Paul Island has a land area of 40 square miles. St. Paul Island currently has one school (K-12, 100 students), one post office, one bar, one small store, and one church (the Russian Orthodox Sts. Peter and Paul Church). The church is listed on the USA National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Saint Paul is the largest of the Pribilof Islands and lies the farthest north. With a width of 7.66 mi at its widest point and a length of 13.5 mi on its longest axis (which runs from northeast to southwest), it has a total area of 43 square miles. Volcanic in origin, Saint Paul features a number of cinder cones and volcanic craters in its interior. The highest of these, Rush Hill, rises to 665 ft on the island&#39;s western shore, though most of the upland areas average less than 150 ft in elevation. Most of the island is a low-lying mix of rocky plateaus and valleys, with some of the valleys holding freshwater ponds. Much of its 45.5 mi of shoreline is rugged and rocky, rising to sheer cliffs at several headlands, though long sandy beaches backed by shifting sand dunes flank a number of shallow bays.</p><br>
<p>Like the other Pribilof Islands, Saint Paul rises from a basaltic base. Its hills are primarily brown or red tufa and cinder heaps, though some (like Polavina) are composed of red scoria and breccia.</p><br>
<p>The island sits on the southern edge of the Bering-Chukchi platform, and may have been part of the Bering Land Bridges southern coastline when the last ice ages glaciers reached their maximum expansion. Sediment core samples taken on Saint Paul show that tundra vegetation similar to that found on the island today has been present for at least 9,000 years. The thick rough turf is dominated by umbellifers (particularly Angelica) and Artemisia, though grasses and sedges are also abundant.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Aleut peoples knew of the Pribilofs long before westerners discovered the islands. They called the islands Amiq, Aleut for "land of mothers brother" or "related land". According to their oral tradition, the son of an Unimak Island elder found them after paddling north in his boat in an attempt to survive a storm that caught him out at sea; when the winds finally died, he was lost in dense fog—until he heard the sounds of Saint Pauls vast seal colonies.</p><br>
<p>Russian fur traders were the first non-natives to discover Saint Paul. The island was discovered by Gavriil Pribylov on St. Peter and St. Paul&#39;s Day, July 12, 1788. Three years later the Russian merchant vessel John the Baptist was shipwrecked off the shore. The crew were listed as missing until 1793, when the survivors were rescued by Gerasim Izmailov.</p><br>
<p>In the 18th-century Russians forced Aleuts from the Aleutian chain (several hundred miles south of the Pribilofs) to hunt seal for them on the Pribilof Islands. Before this the Pribilofs were not regularly inhabited. The Aleuts were essentially slave labor for the Russians; hunting, cleaning, preparing fur seal skins which the Russians sold for a great deal of money. The Aleuts were not taken back to their home islands, lived in inhumane conditions, were beaten, and were regulated by the Russians down to what they could eat and wear and whom they could marry.</p><br>
<p>Saints Peter and Paul Church, a Russian Orthodox church, was built on the island in 1907.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Saint Pauls climate is strongly influenced by the cold waters of the surrounding Bering Sea, and is classified as polar (Köppen ET) due to the raw chilliness of the summers. It experiences a relatively narrow range of temperatures, high wind, humidity and cloudiness levels, and persistent summer fog. There is high seasonal lag: February is the islands coldest month, while August is its warmest; the difference between the average low temperature in February and the average high temperature in August is only 31.8 &deg;F. Although the mean average temperature for the year is above freezing, at 35.33 &deg;F, the monthly daily average temperature remains below freezing from December to April. Low temperatures at or below 0 &deg;F occur an average of 4.7 nights per year (mostly from January to March), and the island is part of USDA Hardiness Zone 6. Extreme temperatures have ranged from −19 &deg;F on March 14, 1971, up to 66 &deg;F on August 25, 1987. Winds are strong and persistent year-round, averaging around 15 mph. They are strongest from late autumn through winter, when they increase to an average of nearly 20 mph, blowing mostly from the north. In the summer, they become weaker and blow primarily from the south.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s humidity level, which averages more than 80 percent year round, is highest during the summer. Cloud cover levels peak during the summer as well. Although high year-round, with an average of 88 percent, cloud cover levels rise to 95 percent in the summer. Fog too is more common in the summer, occurring on roughly one-third of the days. The island receives about 23.8 in of precipitation per year, with the highest monthly totals occurring between late summer and early winter, when Bering Sea storms batter the island. Snowfall levels are highest between December and March, averaging 61.7 in per year. Other than trace amounts, the period from June to September is generally snow-free. High winds and relatively warm temperatures combine to keep snow levels low, resulting in monthly mean snow depths of less than 6 in. Hours of daylight range from a low of 6.5 hours in midwinter to a high of 18 hours in midsummer.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>Saint Paul Island, like all of the Pribilof Islands, is part of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge. Its seabird cliffs were purchased in 1982 for inclusion in the refuge. The island has also been designated as an Important Bird Area.</p><br>
<p>It is the breeding grounds for more than 500,000 northern fur seals and millions of seabirds, and is surrounded by one of the world&#39;s richest fishing grounds.</p><br>
<p>Woolly mammoths survived on Saint Paul Island until c. 3,750 BC, which is the most recent survival of North American mammoth populations.</p><br>
<p>It is thought that this population died out as a result of diminishing fresh water, brought on by climate change.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>Saint Paul Island has the largest Aleut community in the United States, one of the USA government&#39;s officially recognized Native American tribal entities of Alaska. Out of a total population of 532 people, 457 of them (86 percent) are Alaska Natives.</p><br>
<p>Some of the island&#39;s residents only stay part of the year and work in the crab and boat yards. The large boats that have been fishing the Bering Sea offload their fish onto the island and workers prepare them for shipping around the world. The native peoples of the island (Aleut tribe), who make up the vast majority of the population, are Russian Orthodox, if they consider themselves religious.</p><br>
<h2>Wind power</h2><br>
<p>TDX Power&#39;s first energy generation facility was built on St. Paul Island. Completed in 1999, the wind energy based electric and thermal cogeneration facility was widely regarded as one of the more technologically advanced wind energy power projects in America. The TDX Power wind/diesel hybrid facility is known for its efficiency and reduction in diesel fuel consumption. The 120 ft-tall turbine is a major point of pride for the ecologically conscious Aleut community of Saint Paul. Two additional units were installed in 2007. Each unit is rated at 225 kW and the blade lengths are 44.3 ft (13.5 m).</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The island is the scene of the Rudyard Kipling story "The White Seal" and poem "Lukannon" in The Jungle Book.</p><br>
<p>Mycale. also Mykale and Mykali , called Samsun Dağı and Dilek Dağı  in modern Turkey, is a mountain on the west coast of central Anatolia in Turkey, north of the mouth of the Maeander and divided from the Greek island of Samos by the 1.6 km wide Mycale Strait. The mountain forms a ridge, terminating in what was known anciently as the Trogilium promontory . There are several beaches on the north shore ranging from sand to pebbles. The south flank is mainly escarpment.</p><br>
<p>In classical Greece nearly the entire ridge was a promontory enclosed by the Aegean Sea. Geopolitically it was part of Ionia with Priene placed on the coast on the south flank of the mountain and Miletus on the coast opposite to the south across the deep embayment into which the Maeander River drained. Somewhat further north was Ephesus.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of the first two Ionian cities mentioned with their harbor facilities remain but today are several miles inland overlooking instead a rich agricultural plain and delta parkland created by deposition of sediments from the river, which continues to form the geological feature named after it, maeanders. The end of the former bay remains as a lake, Çamiçi Gölü (Lake Bafa). Samsun Daği does retain a promontory.</p><br>
<p>The entire ridge was made into a national park of 109.85 km&sup2, Dilek Yarimadisi Milli Parki ("Dilek Peninsula National Park") in 1966, which is in part accessible to the public. The remainder is a military reservation. The park&#39;s isolation has encouraged the return of the native ecology, which is 60% maquis. It is a refuge for species that used to be more abundant in the region.</p><br>
<h2>Geophysics</h2><br>
<p>Western Turkey is mainly fault-block terrain with steep-sided ridges running east-west and rivers in the rifts. The source of the faulting is the closing of Tethys Sea and the collision of the African and Arabian plates with the Eurasian plate. The smaller Turkish and Aegean plates are being pushed together, generating ridges in Turkey. This orogenic belt was in place by 1.6 mya and continues to be a hot spot of earthquakes and volcanos.</p><br>
<p>Mount Mycale is part of a larger ridge, which continues in Samos on the other side of the Samos Strait, and to the northeast in the Aydin Dağlari ("Aydin Mountains"), ancient Messogis range, on the other side of low hills and passes. The entire block of mountains around the Menderes (Maeander) River is the Menderes Massif.</p><br>
<p>Mycale is scored transversely by numerous ravines through which sources drain. The biggest ravine is Oluk Gorge, with cliffs 200 m high. The main permanent streams are the Bal Deresi, the Sarap Dami and the Oluk Dereleri. The ample water supply supports a verdant maquis.</p><br>
<p>The rock is primarily metamorphic: marble and limestone formed from rocks originating in the Mesozoic,crystalline schists formed from rocks originating in the Palaeozoic and conglomerates of the Cenozoic. These materials were not wasted on the renowned builders and sculptors of Ionia.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The ridge and its environs offer a number of different ecologies. The crest is a sharp divide between the xerophytic southern slopes and the forested northern slopes, with 66.24 km&sup2; of maquis and 35.74 km&sup2; of mixed pine.</p><br>
<p>Around the base of the promontory is a maritime environment.</p><br>
<p>The maquis vegetation includes Pistacia lentiscus; Laurus nobilis; Quercus ilex, Q. frainetto and Q. ithaburensis; Phillyrea latifolia; Ceratonia siliqua; Olea europaea; Rubus fruticosus; Myrtus communis; Smilax; Jasminum fruticans; Vitex vivifera; Lathyrus grandiflorus; Erica arborea; and Juncus on the slopes of the north. In moister areas are to be found Nerium oleander, Platanus orientalis, Fraxinus ornus, Laurus nobilis, Cupressus sempervirens and Rubus fruticosus.</p><br>
<p>The mixed pine forest goes up to 700 m. Its major plant species are Pinus brutia, Juniperus phoenicea, with broad-leaved trees and shrubs: Ulmus campestris, Acer sempervirens, Fraxinus ornus, Castanea sativa, Tilia platyphyllos, Sorbus torminalis, Viburnum tinus, Pyrus eleagrifolia and Prunus dulcis.</p><br>
<p>Some mammals native to the region are Sus scrofa, Vulpes vulpes, Hystrix cristata, Canis aureus, Canis lupus, Martes martes, Lynx lynx, Felis sylvestris, Ursus arctos, Meles meles, Lepus, Erinaceus europaeus and Sciurus. Migrants are Lynx caracal and Panthera pardus.</p><br>
<p>Some birds are Columba livia, Alectoris graeca, Perdix perdix, Coturnix coturnix, Scolopax rusticola, Turdus merula, Turdus pilaris, Oriolus oriolus, Merops apiaster, eagles, vultures, Corvus corax, Pica pica and Sturnus vulgaris.</p><br>
<p>Monachus monachus breeds in caves around the shores of Mycale. They and other marine predators (including man) feed on Liza, Pagellus, Dentex vulgaris and Thunnus thynnus.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Earliest references</h3><br>
<p>Mycale, Miletus and the Maeander appear in the Trojan Battle Order of the Iliad, where they are populated by Carians. "The steep heights of Mycale" and Miletus are also in the Hymn to Apollo, where Leto, pregnant with Apollo, an especially Ionian god, travels about the Aegean looking for a home for her son, and settles on Delos, the major Ionian political, religious and cultural center of Classical Greece.</p><br>
<p>A similar metaphor is to be found in the centuries-later Hymn to Delos of Callimachus, in which Delos, a swimming island, visits various places in the Aegean, including Parthenia, "Maiden&#39;s Isle" (Samos), where it is entertained by the nymphs of Mycalessos. Just as Parthenia is the previous name of Samos so the reader is to understand Mycalessos as the previous name of Mycale. On being chosen as the birthplace of Apollo, Delos becomes fixed in the sea.</p><br>
<p>There are no earlier instances of Mycale but some major Creto-Mycenan cities, later Ionian, which appear in Mycenaean Greek and Hittite records of the Late Bronze Age. In Hitti language, there were the Achaean-Greek cities Apasa (Ephesus), the capital of a state called Arzawa, in which also was Karkisha in (Caria) and Millawanda (Miletus). In the Linear B script tablets the region is called A-swi-ja (Asia). Documents at Pylos, Thebes and Knossos identify female textile workers and seamstresses (raptria)in servitude of Mi-ra-ti-ja, *Milātiai, "Milesians." The regions from which they came were centers of Mycenaean civilization although the languages they spoke was an early Greek-Mycenaean language and written in Linear B, although some support that was an unknown.</p><br>
<h3>The state of Melia</h3><br>
<p>After the Late Bronze Age the entire Aegean region entered a historical period termed the Greek Dark Ages. Archaeologically it was known as the Proto-geometric and Geometric Periods, which did not belong to any one ethnic group. This is the time to which heavy Ionic migration from mainland Greece to the coast of Ionia and the emergence of Delos as an Ionian center is believed to apply. These events were over at the start of the brilliant renaissance of the Orientalizing Period in which Ionia played a cardinal role.</p><br>
<p>During this rise to prominence twelve cities were settled or resettled and emerged as Ionia speaking varieties of Ionic Greek. Vitruvius, however, says there were thirteen, the extra state being Melite, which "... as a punishment of the arrogance of its citizens was detached from the other states in a war levied pursuant to the directions of a general council (communi consilio); and in its place... the city of Smyrna was admitted into the number of Ionian states (inter Ionas est recepta)." There is no other mention of Melite anywhere but two fragments of Hecataeus say that Melia was a city of Caria and an inscription from Priene confirms that there had been a "Meliac War" against a state located between Priene and Samos; i.e., on Mycale.</p><br>
<p>The inscription records the result of an arbitration between Priene and Samos by jurors from Rhodes. Both litigants claimed that Carium, the fortified settlement of Melia, and Dryussa, another settlement, had been distributed to them at the conclusion of the Meliac War, when the Carians were expelled. Being on the Samian side of the crest Melia had been resettled mainly by Samians and for this reason they had won a similar case brought before Lysimachus of Macedon a century earlier. That case is mentioned in an earlier inscription from Priene.</p><br>
<p>Priene had now reopened the case arguing that their sale of plots from the land demonstrated their continuous ownership of it except for a brief period when an invasion of the Cimmerians under Lygdamus forced temporary Greek evacuation of the region (about 650 BC). The Samians used a passage from the now missing History of Maeandrius of Miletus to support their claim. The jury found that Maeandrius was not authentic and reversed the earlier decision.</p><br>
<h3>Panionium</h3><br>
<p>The Melians had named their capital Carium, "of Caria" as a Greek word. Considering that it was placed in Ionia, the choice of name suggests a political statement of some sort, although the word may have had a different meaning in the Carian language, now lost except for a few dozen words. The Ionians leagued together to defeat it and continued the league, building a capital they called Panionium, "of all the Ionians" next to the former Carium. It rose to prominence while the Ionian confederacy was sovereign, became a memory when Ionia was incorporated into other states and empires and finally was lost altogether. The ancient writers remembered that it had been on the north side of the mountain, across the ridge from Priene.</p><br>
<p>After a few false identifications in modern times, the ruins of Melia and the Panionium were discovered in 2004 on Dilek Daglari, a smaller peak of Mycale, 15 km to the north of Priene at an elevation of 750 m. The Carium must be the early 7th century BC town surrounded by a triangular wall in places as thick as 3 m.</p><br>
<p>The floruit was the early 7th, but sherds have been found there from as early as the Protogeometric period. Coldstream characterizes the burial structures as of "a considerable Carian substrate." The culture was not entirely Carian; the Ionians continued the worship of Poseidon Heliconius there, which Strabo says came from Helike in Peloponnesian Achaea. This event must have been during the Ionian colonization. Melia therefore was a renegade Ionian state.</p><br>
<p>The temple believed to the Panionium was constructed next to the Carium about 540 BC. It took over the worship of Poseidon Heliconius, served as the meeting place of the Ionian League, and was the site of the religious festival and games (panegyris) called the Panionia. The construction of this temple is a terminus post quem for the existence of the Ionian League, which as a constituted body had a name, the koinon Iōnōn ("common thing of the Ionians"), a synedrion ("place to sit down together") and a boulē ("council").</p><br>
<p>Whether this body existed before the Meliac War is uncertain. Vitruvius&#39; commune consilium seems to translate koinon. Some analysts have postulated an association as early as 800 BC but whether formally constituted remains unknown. There is no sign of it yet on Mycale unless Carium had in fact been it.</p><br>
<h3>Battle of Mycale</h3><br>
<p>In 479 BC, Mycale was the site of one of the two major battles that ended the Persian invasion of Greece, during the Greco-Persian Wars. Under the leadership of the Spartan Leotychides, the Greek fleet defeated the Persian fleet and army. According to Herodotus, the battle occurred the same day as the Greek victory at Plataea.</p><br>
<p>Septimer Pass   is a high mountain pass in the canton of Graubünden in the Swiss Alps between the valleys of Bregaglia  and Oberhalbstein . During the Middle Ages, this, the Great St. Bernard and the Brenner Passes were the preferred routes over the Alps for traveling emperors.</p><br>
<p>Already in use by the Romans who maintained a legion camp in the pass around 15-16CE, this pass was an important trade route from Milan, through Bivio to Augsburg It was easier to use than the Splügen Pass, due to the latter having the difficult gorges of the Hinterrhein River. One of the earliest mentions of a Christian hospice was the one placed at the pass itself, mentioned in 831. It had been mentioned in documents for the following millennium, even though it was abandoned in the tenth century and rebuilt in the turn of the eleventh. (The hospice was later abandoned for good in 1778.) During the Middle Ages the Septimer Pass was crucial to the temporal power of the Bishopric of Chur whose extensive territories until the fourteenth century included Chiavenna. In 1236 the St. Gotthard Pass opened, allowing traffic from Lucerne to Milan, which diverted merchants from going through Chur. The pass further lost importance after the construction of roads over Julier and Maloja passes.</p><br>
<p>Karkar Island is an oval-shaped volcanic island located in the Bismarck Sea, about 30 kilometres off the north coast of mainland Papua New Guinea in Madang Province. The island is about 25 km in length and 19 km in width. In the centre is an active volcano with two nested calderas.</p><br>
<p>The land is covered with the volcanic andesitic lava. The soil is very fertile and used for growing food crop and cash crop. The island is full of betel-nut, mustard plant and lime. The island is also known for the view from the mountain looking down to Madang town.</p><br>
<p>The latest eruptions on this island occurred in the 1970s. The 1974-1975 eruption produced a large volume of lava which covered almost 70 percent of the inner caldera&#39;s floor, while 1979 produced no lava flow, but killed the two volcanologists, Robin Cooke and Elias Ravian. The volcano erupted as recently as February 26, 2013.</p><br>
<p>The population of approximately 70,000 is mostly Lutheran and Catholic and speaks the two languages Waskia and Takia. Most people also speak Tok Pisin, and English is taught in the schools. Neighboring islands are Bagabag (Papua New Guinea) and Manam.</p><br>
<p>A single road runs around the entire length of the island. Karkar Secondary School is the only high school. There is one hospital, Gaubin Hospital, known formally as the Edwin & Tabitha Tscharke Memorial Hospital, which is run by the Lutheran Health Service and staffed by several rotating German doctors. The hospital includes a training center for Community Health Workers.</p><br>
<p>The two main exports from the island are cacao and coconuts, which can grow in the same soil due to vast height differences. Large plantations are generally family owned.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded sighting by Europeans of Karkar Island was by the Spanish navigator Iñigo Órtiz de Retes on 10 August 1545 when on board of the carrack San Juan tried to return from Tidore to New Spain.</p><br>
<p>It was later visited by Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire and called "High island". In 1643 Abel Tasman passed the island. William Dampier visited the island, probably in 1699. The volcano erupted in 1895.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the Imperial Japanese occupied the island. The Australian 37th/52nd Battalion landed on 2 June 1944, to find that the Japanese had evacuated the island and Australian 5th Division troops landed on the island at Biu Bay and Kavilo Bay on 6 June 1944.</p><br>
<p>An excellent account of the history of Karkar Island, from the 1920s to the present day, is provided in the autobiography of Sir John Middleton Kt, OBE, My Life on Karkar Island, Papua New Guinea.</p><br>
<p>Monte Perdido  is the third highest mountain in the Pyrenees. The summit of Monte Perdido , located in Spain, lies hidden from France by the seemingly impenetrable peaks of the Cirques of Gavarnie and Estaubé. It stands in the north of Huesca province. The mountain forms part of the Monte Perdido Range and is located in the Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park, in the western part of the Pyrenees, in the community of Aragon, Spain.</p><br>
<p>Access to the mountain is easier from Spain than from France. The route starts near the village of Torla, Aragon, at the Ordesa Valley and ascends the Cirque de Soaso towards the Refuge of Góriz before the stiff climb to the summit. It is a dangerous climb with snow.</p><br>
<h2>National Park</h2><br>
<p>Monte Perdido is the centre-piece of the Spanish Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park which was established in 1918 with just 21 square kilometres of land. The park has grown significantly to 156 square kilometres and incorporates the whole of the Añisclo Canyon. There are more than 1,500 species of flowers, 171 species of birds, 32 different mammals and 8 types of reptile in the Ordesa. Most magnificent of all is the lammergeier (bearded vulture) with a 3-metre wingspan. The Pyrenees is one of the few places in Europe where these birds can be seen.</p><br>
<p>Harsens Island is a wet marshy location at the mouth of the St. Clair River on Lake St. Clair, in the USA state of Michigan. Politically, the island is in Clay Township of St. Clair County.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was named by Americans for its first settler, James (or Jacob) Harsen, of Dutch descent, who migrated from New York state in about 1779, during the American Revolutionary War, with his daughter and son-in-law Isaac Graveraet (or Graveret). Harsen bought the island from the Indians in 1783. It was also known as "Jacob Island" (also James or Jacobus Island) as late as 1809. The name of the post office, Sans Souci, was changed to "Harsens Island" in 1960.</p><br>
<p>Great Britain and the United States disputed the island&#39;s jurisdiction for many years. The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War, described the international boundary line with imprecise terms in several places, including the mouth of the St. Clair River. The area had not been surveyed at that time. In the most commonly known map of the area from that period, made by John Mitchell in 1755 and which was used in negotiating the treaty, the delta and all the islands at the mouth of the St. Clair River are absent.</p><br>
<p>According to the 1783 treaty, the boundary line was to run through the middle of Lake Erie until it arrives at the water communication between that lake and Lake Huron, "thence along the middle of said water communication into the Lake Huron". Due to this vagueness, all of the delta islands, including Harsens and Dickinson, were claimed by the British. Some persons located in the new United States who did not want to renounce their status as British subjects following the war moved to make their residences there. The area was administered by the Hesse District of Upper Canada, which also awarded land grants in the islands. In 1809, surveyors for the British government placed the boundary line in the north channel, which placed all of the delta and islands under British control.</p><br>
<p>But, the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, acknowledged the ambiguity of provisions in the 1783 treaty:</p><br>
<p>"And, whereas, doubts have arisen, what was the middle of the said river, lakes, and water communication, and whether certain islands lying in the same were within the dominions of his Britannic majesty, or of the United States." To decide these questions, two commissioners were to be appointed, one from each nation, to designate the international boundary. They executed their survey of the Detroit River, Lake St. Clair, and the St. Clair River in 1819 and 1820; and issued their final conclusions on June 18, 1822. Their decision regarding the St. Clair River delta was that the boundary should run north through Lake St. Clair, entering "that mouth or channel of the River St. Clair which is usually denominated the Old Ship Channel; thence along the middle of said channel, between Squirrel Island on the southeast, and Herson&#39;s Island on the northwest, to the upper end of the last mentioned island, which is nearly opposite to Point aux Chenes, on the American shore; thence along the middle of the River St. Clair, keeping to the west of, and near, the islands called Belle Riviere Isle, and Isle aux Cerfs, to Lake Huron." By this definition, both Harsens and Dickinson islands were placed on the USA side of the boundary.</p><br>
<p>In 1870 a case arose involving Hiram Little of Wallaceburg, Ontario, a captain who was given a contract to provide cord wood and supplies to a work crew. At the time, a ship canal was being dredged through the marshy areas near Lake St. Clair. By this time shipping was increasing and the need for a deep, free-flowing canal was required. During one trip to the work area, Capt. Little&#39;s ship was seized by USA officials who claimed he was operating illegally since he was in USA waters. Little protested, claiming he was in Canadian water, and challenged USA officials to prove their contention. After searching of documents, including contact with the Crown in England who supplied early charts of the area, Capt. Little was ultimately proven correct. To avoid further embarrassment, the USA officials moved the international boundary east, further infringing on Canadian (and First Nations) land.</p><br>
<p>The present St. Clair River, from Russel Island to Lake St. Clair, has been the international boundary line between Canada and the United States ever since. Some observers still disagree as to which nation should legally "own" Harsens Island and the St. Clair delta area. The Walpole Island First Nation claims that Harsens Island is unceded territory and properly belongs to them.</p><br>
<p>Harsens Island is the only USA island in the Flats that can be reached by automobile, and is the only one with roads and an unincorporated community, Sans Souci. The island community had a public school, which has closed and been replaced by a restaurant. Other tourist attractions include shops, an art gallery, and a small airport. All the other USA islands&mdash;there are scores of them&mdash;are accessible only by boat.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The St. Clair River is an integral part of the Great Lakes, draining water from Lake Huron down, eventually, to Lake Erie. The delta was formed about 6,000 years ago and long was a desired area of habitation by indigenous peoples.</p><br>
<p>The St. Clair River is the international boundary between the United States and Canada. The river carries more freighter traffic than the Suez and Panama Canals combined. Over 1 e9USgal of fresh water per day flow down the St. Clair River, and through its delta region, the St. Clair Flats.</p><br>
<p>Harsens Island is the major USA island in the Flats and the only one to be accessible by auto ferry. The Canadian side of the Flats has the largest islands in the delta, including Walpole Island, which are among six islands controlled by the Walpole Island First Nation, made up of Ojibwa, Potawatomi, and Odawa peoples.</p><br>
<p>The St. Clair Flats supports a range of wildlife, such as the great blue heron, snapping turtles, watersnakes, muskrats, mink, whitetail deer, pintail, canvasback and mallard ducks, Canada geese and red-winged blackbirds. The area is a popular fishing spot, as yellow perch, large and small mouth bass, rock bass, carp, sunfish, pumpkinseed fish, bluegills, and silver bass are available. The State of Michigan owns about 75% of the area of Harsen&#39;s Island, and manages waterfowl and wildlife sanctuaries throughout.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>Michael Dixon Books.</p><br>
<p>Michael Dixon Books.</p><br>
<p>Romig, Walter. Michigan Place Names. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986.</p><br>
<p>Jenks, William Lee.. Chicago and New York: The Lewis publishing company, 1912.</p><br>
<p>Bkejwanong Walpole Island First Nation website @ l</p><br>
<p>Horn Island is a long, thin barrier island off the Gulf Coast of Mississippi, south of Ocean Springs. It is part of the Gulf Islands National Seashore. Horn Island is several miles long, but less than a mile wide at its widest point. It occupies about 11 square kilometers.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The island, in part, shelters and bounds the Mississippi Sound to its north, and has a long beach on the Gulf of Mexico on its south side. The island is undeveloped, except for a small ranger station mid-island. Part of the Gulf Islands National Seashore, it is a favorite boating destination for those living on the Mississippi Gulf Coast.</p><br>
<p>Horn Island has long stretches of sugar-white sand, dunes punctuated with sea oats, tall pines on small groves, and a few inland lagoons. It is home to varied wildlife including alligators, ospreys, pelicans, ducks, rabbits, raccoons, tern, herons, and other migratory birds. The Sound and the Gulf host innumerable species of sea life.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>From 1943 to 1945, Horn Island was closed to all public access and activity for use as a biological weapons testing site by the USA Army.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby Islands</h2><br>
<p>Horn is not alone in its small island group. Similar nearby islands include Petit Bois Island to the east, and Ship Island and Cat Island to the west. Of the group, Horn Island is the largest.</p><br>
<p>The Murdock School, also known as Old Murdock High School, is an historic school building on Murdock Avenue in Winchendon, Massachusetts. The 2.5 story Romanesque brick building was built in 1887 with funds donated by Captain Ephraim Murdock, Jr., whose father had previously donated the Winchendon Academy building to the town. The building is the most elaborate school building in the town. Roughly square in layout with a projecting front gable section, its most prominent feature is the tall clock tower and the Romanesque round arch entryway. The arch is topped on the front facade on the second level by a group of four rectangular windows, and on the third by four round-arch windows. The building served the town as a school building until 1962.</p><br>
<p>The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.</p><br>
<p>The Diamond Point School is a historic one-room school house in Nowata County, Oklahoma, at the junction of county roads 409 and 245. It was built in 1919 and was used through 1968. It is built of red brick and has a bell tower in one corner. It was restored in 1996 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997. It is set within a 1 acre school yard which includes the original playground equipment, including teeter-totters, a wooden merry-go-round, a slide, and a swingset. The grounds also include boys and girls outhouses and a more modern building which includes a kitchen and lunchroom. The school is open for tour by appointment, and is used for reunions, meetings and. It is also used by local schools for "A Day at Diamond Point", a program giving fourth grade students the experience of students in a one-room country schoolhouse during the 1950s.</p><br>
<p>Kittatinny Mountain  is a long ridge traversing across northwestern New Jersey running in a northeast-southwest axis, a continuation across the Delaware Water Gap of Pennsylvanias Blue Mountain Ridge . It is the first major ridge in the far northeastern extension of the Ridge and Valley province of the Appalachian Mountains, and reaches its highest elevation , 1,803 feet, at High Point in Montague Township. Kittatinny Mountain forms the eastern side of Wallpack Valley; the western side comprises the Wallpack Ridge (highest elevation: 928 ft above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Protected areas</h2><br>
<p>Most of the range is publicly owned and protected. In the far northeast, High Point State Park protects the area around High Point itself. Further southwest, Stokes State Forest encompasses much of the range from the southern boundary of High Point State Park to the eastern boundary of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. The recreation area encompasses the entire southern half of the range, and also contains the smaller Worthington State Forest, which also protects the southwestern end of the range near the Delaware Water Gap itself.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The name comes from a Lenape Native American word meaning "endless hill" or "great mountain". The highest peak in the range is High Point at 1,803 ft, which is also the highest point in the state of New Jersey. This peak is located in High Point state park and has a road leading to the top. The second highest mountain is Sunrise Mountain, located within Stokes State Forest. The elevation here is 1,653 ft and has a road leading almost to the top. At the top there is a shelter with a roof but no sides.</p><br>
<p>The Kittatinny Mountain is of the Silurian Shawangunk Conglomerate which is mainly composed of quartz. Due to the hardness of the quartz, the mountain is extremely resistant to weathering.</p><br>
<p>Around four hundred fifty million years ago, a chain of volcanic islands shaped like an arch collided with proto North America. The North American plate went under the chain of islands. The islands went on top of the edge of North America creating the Highlands and the Kittatinny Valley which is the Ordovician Martinsburg Shale. Quartz and other sedimentary conglomerate was transported to the inland sea, which was over part of the Martinsburg Shale. A small continent then collided with North America around four hundred million years ago. Geologic pressure resulted, which caused compression and then folding and faulting resulted. The folding ran perpendicular to the directional forces. During folding, intense heat melted silica which cemented the quartz and other stones together. Also the intense heat allowed the rock layers to bend, thus the Kittatinny Mountain was born.</p><br>
<p>Near the base of the west side of the mountain is the Silurian High Falls Formation, which is red and green shale and sandstone. The east side of the mountain near the base is of the Ordovician Martinsburg Formation which contains slate, shale and sandstone. The top of the mountain has a fairly even elevation ranging between 1,400 ft and 1,600 ft. There are two exceptions. One is Culvers Gap, which was created by an ancient stream which was diverted and is now a wind gap. The base of Culvers Gap is at least 400 ft below the top of the mountain. Culvers Gap is located near Culvers Lake, just west of Branchville. The second is a small gap in the mountain, south of Catfish Pond, which is north of the gap. This gap is about 350 ft deep.</p><br>
<p>Culver&#39;s Gap was a route used by Paleo Indians and the Lenape Native Americans to go through the mountain to trade and hunt. The second is a groove or depression in the mountain ridge near Catfish Pond. This is about 373 ft deep as the base of the depression is 1,100 ft and the top of the mountain at that place is 1,473 ft. The top of the mountain ranges from 50 meters wide to nearly 4 mi wide.</p><br>
<p>West of the Kittatinny Mountain, at the northwestern end is the Port Jervis trough, also called the Minisink Valley. Next to the mountain on the western side is the Flatbrook Valley or Walpack Valley which runs from Steam Mill to Flatbrookville.</p><br>
<p>From the Delaware Water Gap to the New York line is 40 mi but the ridges continues into New York State where it is known as the Shawangunk Mountains. The ridge continues to nearly Kingston, New York.</p><br>
<p>The Wisconsin glacier covered the entire mountain about 21,000 BC, and melted about 13,000 BC. The terminal moraine is located near Belvidere. The glacier has left end moraines, periglacial rock fields, and kettles, at the northern end of the mountain in Stokes State Forest.</p><br>
<p>The area was a Tundra biome after the glacier melted and then became a Taiga biome as the climate warmed. At that time coniferous trees such as spruce and pine inhabited the area. The area warmed more around 8000 BC so oak, maple, birch, willow, and other deciduous trees began to grow.</p><br>
<h2>Paleo Indians</h2><br>
<p>Paleo Indians inhabited the Delaware River Valley around 10,500 BC. after the Wisconsin Glacier melted. They hunted, fished and gathered plants to eat in the Delaware Valley and on Kittatinny Mountain. They had no permanent camps and traveled often in search of food. As the glacier melted, grasslands developed which eventually turned into coniferous and later deciduous forests after thousands of years. Big game roamed the grassland which allowed Paleo Indians to survive. Around 8000 B.C. deciduous trees began to grow, in which nut trees began to grow to allow the collection of nuts. This allowed Paleo Indian populations to increase slowly.</p><br>
<p>The Marshall Creek Mastodon found just north of the Gap was dated at 10,210BC ±180 years. Other big game existed at the time such as caribou and muskox.</p><br>
<h2>Native Americans</h2><br>
<p>The Lenape Native Americans that came to the area two thousand years ago from the Mississippi River valley. They traveled on the mountain in search of plant foods and game. They collected acorns, walnuts, hickory nuts, beech nuts, chestnuts, and butternuts from the deciduous forest, and collected water from fresh streams. The Lenapes also hunted deer, elk, and bear on the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Waterfalls, cliffs and lakes</h2><br>
<p>There is one waterfall on the western side of the mountain known as Buttermilk Falls. This is about 4 mi south of US Route 206, in which a dirt road leads to the base of it. A wooden staircase has been built near it, so people can climb to the top.</p><br>
<p>A second falls is seasonable during heavy rains next to Interstate 80 near the Big Cliffs. Water slides over the rocks and drops over a small ledge before going under Interstste 80.</p><br>
<p>There are several cliffs on the mountain. The largest is located at the Delaware Water Gap. The cliff is up to 300 ft high and starts at Interstate 80 and extends about 400 meters along the mountain The second largest cliff is located 6 mi north of the Gap, on the eastern side. Small rock faces exist on the western face and eastern face along the mountain. The southeastern face of the mountain has a steeper pitch than the northwestern face.</p><br>
<p>The top of the mountain has 14 lakes and ponds. Sunfish Pond, Catfish Pond, Mountain Ridge Lake, Blue Mountain Lake, Long Pine Pond, Lake Success, Crater Lake, Hemlock Lake, Kittatinny Lake, Steeny Kill Lake and Lake Marcia are some of them. Lake Marcia is the lake with the highest elevation on the mountain, 1,574 ft above sea level. This lake is located in High Point State Park which is at the northern end of Kittatinny Mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The mountain is a northern deciduous forest of various oaks, hickories, maples, birches, walnut, elm, ash, birch, sycamore, cherry, beech, chestnut, and sweet gum. Wild blueberries and rhodendrum also grow on the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Animals such as whitetailed deer, gray squirrels, red squirrels, chipmunks, gray fox, bobcats, beaver, black bears as well as a large variety of birds inhabit the mountain. Turkey Vultures and Red Tail Hawks are also common.</p><br>
<p>Fish such as trout, pickerel, and bass are also in the lakes.</p><br>
<h2>Mining</h2><br>
<p>Copper mining began in the 1750s at the Pahaquarry Copper Mine, which is 8 mi north of the Gap, off Old Mine Road.</p><br>
<p>This mine is located in the Silurian High Falls Formation on the west side of the mountain. This sandstone is very hard and made mining very difficult. The copper was between 2 and 3 percent in the ore which made mining unprofitable. Mining was done in the 1800s, by various companies which went bankrupt. The mine sold several times.</p><br>
<p>Silver mining began in the 1880s with John Snook digging a mine at the northern end and western face of the Kittatinny mountain in an area now known as Stokes State Forest. He extracted silver ore for a short time and the silver ore was depleted. The mine is now flooded with water.</p><br>
<h2>Kittatinny and Flatbrook Valleys</h2><br>
<p>To the east of the Kittatinny Mountain, is the Great Kittatinny Valley. This is drained by the Paulinskill river in the south and the Wallkill River in the north. The Big Flatbrook drains the mountain on the northwestern end beginning at Steam mill swamp and flows in a southwesterly direction which drains into the Delaware River near Flatbrookville. This area is known as the Flatbrook Valley.</p><br>
<p>The Port Jervis trough is at the northwestern end of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>The Delaware River flows near the mountain at the south end, finally cutting across the ridge at the Delaware Water Gap just south of Mount Tammany.</p><br>
<p>The Kittatinnies are a far northeastern extension of the Ridge and Valley province of the Appalachian Mountains. In Pennsylvania, the ridge forming the Kittatinnies becomes known as Blue Mountain and runs southwest for 150 mi, nearly to Maryland. In Franklin County, Pennsylvania, however, a parallel ridge to Blue Mountain is named "Kittatinny Mountain&quot the Pennsylvania Turnpike tunnels through both ridges (a very short distance apart) with the western tunnel named "Kittatinny Mountain" and the eastern one "Blue Mountain." To the north in New York, the ridge is known as the Shawangunk Mountains which goes to Kingston, New York.</p><br>
<p>Artificial to natural</comment></p><br>
<p>Pushkar Lake or Pushkar Sarovar (पुष्कर-सरोवर) is located in the town of Pushkar in Ajmer district of the Rajasthan state of western India. Pushkar Lake is a sacred lake of the Hindus. The Hindu scriptures describe it as "Tirtha-Raj" – the king of pilgrimage sites related to a water-body and relate it to the mythology of the creator-god Brahma, whose most prominent temple stands in Pushkar. The Pushkar Lake finds mention on coins as early as the 4th century BC.</p><br>
<p>Pushkar Lake is surrounded by 52 bathing ghats (a series of steps leading to the lake), where pilgrims throng in large numbers to take a sacred bath, especially around Kartik Poornima (October–November) when the Pushkar Fair is held. A dip in the sacred lake is believed to cleanse sins and cure skin diseases. Over 500 Hindu temples are situated around the lake precincts.</p><br>
<p>Tourism and deforestation in the surroundings have taken a heavy toll on the lake, adversely affecting its water quality, reducing the water levels and destroying the fish population. As part of conservation measures, the government is undertaking de-silting, de-weeding, water treatment, and afforestation as well as mass awareness programme.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Pushkar Lake around which the Pushkar town has developed is in the Ajmer district in the state of Rajasthan, India amidst the Aravalli range of hills. The mountain range known as Nag Parbat ("snake mountain") separates the lake from the city of Ajmer. The valley is formed between the two parallel ranges of the Aravalli hills (in elevation range of 650 - running south-west to north-east. Situated at 14 km northwest from Ajmer, the artificial Pushkar Lake created by building a dam is surrounded by deserts and hills on all three sides. The lake is categorized as a "Sacred Lake" under the list of "Classification of Lakes in India".</p><br>
<p>The soil and topography in the catchment are predominantly sandy with very low water retention capacity.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The region experiences semi-arid climatic conditions with dry and hot summers and cool winters. The summer months of May and June are the hottest, with a maximum temperature of around 45 &deg;C. During the winter months, the maximum mean temperature is in the range of 25 -. Rain mainly occurs during a short spell of two months during July and August. The recorded average rainfall is in the range of 400 -. Rainfall is also recorded some times during winter months of January and February.</p><br>
<p>From April to September, strong winds blowing in the southwest to northeast direction add to the formation of sand dunes.</p><br>
<h3>Hydrology</h3><br>
<p>The Pushkar Lake drains a catchment of the Aravalli hills covering an area of 22 km&sup2;. The lake has a water surface area of 22 hectare. It is a perennial lake sourced by the monsoon rainfall over the catchment. The depth of water in the lake varies from season to season from 8 -. The total storage capacity of the lake is 0.79 million cubic metres (1.03 million cu yd). As the lake periphery is encircled by 52 ghats of various sizes, the surface water flow from the catchment into the lake is channelled through a series of arches under a foot bridge, 110 m long at the southern end. The foot bridge facilitates the parikrama (circumambulation) that is performed by pilgrims around the lake covering all the 52 ghats (covers an area of 2 hectare).</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Pushkar Lake, when full, is rich in fish and other aquatic life. The depth of the lake has substantially shrunk &ndash; to less than 1.5 m from a maximum of 9 m &ndash; resulting in the death of large fish weighing 5 -, caused due to the viscous water and the lack of oxygen for the fish to survive. Since the region where the lake and its valley is situated is arid, the flora and fauna recorded relate to desert plants, including cactus and thorny bushes, as well as desert animals like camels and cattle. Man-eating crocodiles used to be a menace in the Puskhar Lake, resulting in the deaths of people. Pilgrims were aware of this fact, yet many considered it as lucky to be eaten by crocodiles. The crocodiles were caught with nets by the British and shifted to a nearby reservoir.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Pushkar Lakes history dates back to the 4th century BC. Numismatics, in the form of punched Greek and Kushan coins date the lake back to this time. The inscriptions found at Sanchi attest to the lakes existence to the 2nd Century BC. This suggests that Pushkar was a pilgrimage centre even if it did not lie on the trade route.</p><br>
<p>In the fifth century AD, Chinese traveller Fa Xian made reference to the number of visitors to Pushkar Lake.</p><br>
<p>A story tells of a ninth-century Rajput king, Nahar Rao Parihar of Mandore, chasing a white boar to the lake shore on a hunting expedition. In order to quench his thirst, he dipped his hand into the lake and was astonished to see that the Leukoderma marks on his hand had disappeared. Impressed with the sacred curative nature of the lake, he got the lake restored to its glory. After discovering the curative characteristics of the lake water, people have since visited the lake to take a holy dip and cure themselves of skin problems.</p><br>
<p>The creation of Pushkar Lake, as an artificial lake, is also credited to the 12th century when a dam was built across the headwaters of the Luni River. The 10th Sikh guru, Guru Govind Singh (1666–1708), is said to have recited the Sikh sacred text Guru Granth Sahib on the banks of the lake.</p><br>
<p>During the Mughal rule, there was a short break in the lakes importance due to the levy of a pilgrim tax and a ban on religious processions. In 1615–16, the Mughal emperor Jahangir (1569–1627) built his hunting lodge (seen now in total ruins) on the shores of the Pushkar Lake to celebrate his victory over the local Rajput Rana (king). He came to this lodge 16 times for hunting during his stay in Ajmer, about 23 km from Pushkar. This act violated the local tradition of not killing any animals in the precincts of the sacred lake. He also committed an idolatrous act by breaking the image of Varaha &ndash; the boar Avatar of the god Vishnu, as it resembled a pig and symbolically hurt Islamic sensitivity. Thereafter, Jahangirs grandson emperor Aurangzeb (1618–1707) destroyed and desecrated several temples, which were later rebuilt. However, during the rule of Jahangirs father, Emperor Akbar (1542–1605), there was a revival of not only the lake but also the Ajmers Dargah dedicated to sufi saint Moinuddin Chishti, of whom Akbar was a devout follower.</p><br>
<p>The Rajput rulers of Amber, Bundi, Bikaner and Jaisalmer made great efforts to restore the importance of the lake and its surrounding temples. Credits given for modern additions to the building of ghats and the renovation/construction of temples go to Maharaja Man Singh I of Amber for the Raj Ghat and Man temple; Maha Rana Pratap for the Varaha temple; Daulat Rao Scindia for Kot Tirth Ghat, the Marathas-Anaji Scindia to the Koteshwar Mahadev temple and Govind Rao, the Maratha governor of Ajmer for Shiva Ghat; to the British rule for combining the religious pilgrimage with a cattle fair to generate taxes for improving the lake and its surroundings; and gifting of the Jaipur Ghat and the Main Palace on the ghat in 1956 by the Maharaja of Jaipur.</p><br>
<h2>Religious significance</h2><br>
<p>There are various legends from Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and the Puranic scriptures which mention the Pushar Lake and the town of Pushkar surrounding it.</p><br>
<p>According to the Hindu scripture Padma Purana, Brahma saw the demon Vajranabha (Vajranash in another version) trying to kill his children and harassing people. He immediately slew the demon with his weapon, the lotus-flower. In this process, the lotus petals fell on the ground at three places, where springs emerged creating three lakes: the Pushkar Lake or Jyeshta Pushkar (greatest or first Pushkar), the Madya Pushkar (middle Pushkar) Lake, and Kanishta Pushkar (lowest or youngest Pushkar) lake. When Brahma came down to the earth, he named the place where the flower ("pushpa") fell from Brahmas hand ("kar") as "Pushkar". The three lakes were assigned their presiding deities as the Hindu Trinity Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, respectively. When Brahma came down to the earth, he named the place where the lotus fell as Pushkar&#39;. Brahma then decided to perform a yagna at the place, at the main Pushkar Lake. However, his wife Savitri (called Sarasvati in some versions) could not be present at the designated time to perform the essential part of the yagna. Brahma, therefore, married a Gujjar,a dominant agricultural race named Gayatri and completed the yagna with his new consort sitting beside him. However, when Savitri finally arrived at the venue, she found Gayatri sitting next to Brahma in her rightful place. Agitated, she cursed Brahma that he would be worshipped only in Pushkar. As a result of this, yagna performed in the presence of all the gods, it is said that a dip in the lake created at this place is credited with holiness, assuring salvation from all sins. It is now one of the five holiest centres of pilgrimage for Hindus.</p><br>
<p>Ramayana and Mahabharata refer to Pushkar Lake as Adi Tirtha, or the "original sacred water-body". The famous Sanskrit poet and play-writer Kalidasa also referred to this lake in his poem Abhijñānaśākuntalam. Vishwamitra was also described as building the Brahma temple at Pushkar after Brahma&#39;s yagna. Mahabharata mentions that Pushkar is a holy place of the god Vishnu, considered as the Adi Tirtha where millions of tirthas united during sunrise and sunset, and visiting the lake and taking a holy bath in the lake would wash off all sins.</p><br>
<p>According to Hindu theology, there are five sacred lakes collectively called Panch-Sarovar (Sarovar means "lake"). Namely, Mansarovar, Bindu Sarovar, Narayan Sarovar, Pampa Sarovar and Pushkar Sarovar; hence, Pushkar is considered one of the most sacred places in India. It is also the belief of devotees that a dip in the waters of the lake on Kartik Poornima would equal the benefits that would accrue by performing yagnas (fire-sacrifices) for several centuries. Pushkar is often called "Tirtha-Raj" &ndash; the king of pilgrimage sites related to water-bodies. International Business Times has identified Pushkar as one of the ten most religious places in the world and one of the five sacred pilgrimage places for the Hindus, in India.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural attractions</h2><br>
<p>Pushkar Lake and its precincts offer a plethora of monuments of national importance, such as the Pushkar city, the Brahma temple at Pushkar and the ghats on the periphery of the lakes. The lake is the central divine theme for the popularity of all the monuments seen in the town and the fairs held here.</p><br>
<h3>Pushkar city</h3><br>
<p>Pushkar city, with a population of 14,791 at the 2001 census, is one of the oldest cities in India. The city lies on the shore of Pushkar Lake. The date of its actual origin is not known, but legend associates Brahma with its creation concurrent with the lake; Brahma is said to have performed penance here for a darshan (sight) of god Vishnu. Thus, its uniqueness lies in the fact of its historic-religious-cultural background, and as a result it attracts approximately 100,000 visitors every month, apart from the very large congregation that occurs during the annual Pushkar Fair. However, the Pushkar Lake is central to its sustenance as a religious centre. The tourist arrivals during 2005 were reported to be about 16.12 million (said to be the maximum among all tourist attractions in Rajasthan), out of which the foreign tourists were about 63,000.</p><br>
<h3>Temples</h3><br>
<p>Apart from the sacred Lake, Pushkar is said to have over 500 temples (80 are large and the rest are small); of these many old temples were destroyed or desecrated by Muslim depredations during Aurangzeb&#39;s rule (1658–1707) but were re-built subsequently. The most important of these is the Brahma temple. Though the current structure dates to the 14th century, the original temple is believed to be 2000 years old. Although now the Pushkar temple does not remain the only Brahma temple, it is still one of very few existing temples dedicated to Brahma in India as well as the most prominent. Other notable temples around the lake include Varaha temple &ndash; dedicated to Varaha (the boar incarnation of god Vishnu), Savitri temple and Gayatri temple, dedicated to the consorts of Brahma.</p><br>
<h3>Ghats</h3><br>
<p>Ghats (stone steps laid on a gradual bank slope to descend to the lake edge) at Pushkar are integral to the lake. Ghats are also used for sacred bathing and rites, such as ancestor worship. Out of 52 ghats used by pilgrims to take a holy bath in the lake, ten important ghats on the periphery of the lake, which have other contiguous ghats adjoining them, have also been declared as Monuments of National Importance. These ghats are: the Varaha Ghat, the Dadhich Ghat, Saptarishi Ghats, Gwalior Ghat, Kota Ghat, Gau ghat, Yag Ghat, Jaipur Ghat, Karni Ghat and Gangaur Ghat. These ghats as well as the sacred Pushkar Lake (which is also a declared heritage monument) have been refurbished over the centuries by the Royal families of Rajasthan and by the Maratha kings. These are now undergoing further works as part of a heritage improvement programme launched with funds provided by the Government of Rajasthan and several departments of the Government of India. There are strict codes to be followed while taking a bath in the ghats, such as removing shoes away from the ghats and avoiding the passing of unwarranted comments about Hindu religious beliefs by non-Hindus, since the ghats and the temples are linked to the divine lake. The sacred water of the lake is said to be curative of many skin diseases. Local belief is that water around each ghat has a special curative power. While many ghats have been named after the Rajas who built them, some ghats have particular importance. Varaha ghat is so named since Vishnu appeared here in his incarnation of a boar (Varaha). Brahma Ghat is so named since Brahma bathed here. The Gau Ghat was renamed as Gandhi Ghat after Mahatma Gandhi&#39;s ashes were immersed at this ghat. Nart Singh Ghat, close to Varaha Ghat, has a stuffed crocodile on display.</p><br>
<p>A coinage known as "Puskar Passport" used by visitors to the lake and the ghats denotes the red thread that is tied on the wrists of pilgrims by the priests (for a dakshina &ndash; an unspecified fee). This indicates that the pilgrim has visited Pushkar Lake and is usually not approached by priests again for further rites and fees.</p><br>
<h2>Pushkar Fair</h2><br>
<p>Pushkar Lake and its precincts become very heavily populated during the annual Pushkar Fair or Pushkar mela, which has both a religious as well as an economic aspect. During the fair, a very large gathering of pilgrims takes a holy dip in the lake and the camel fair is an adjunct celebration. Pushkar Fair commences on Prabodhini Ekadashi, the 11th lunar day in the bright fortnight and ends on Kartik Poornima – the full Moon day in the month of Kartik (October–November), the latter being the most important day of the fair. This fair is held in the honour of god Brahma. A ritual bath on Kartik Poornima in the Pushkar Lake is considered to lead one to salvation. It is believed circling the three Pushkars on Kartik Poornima is highly meritorious. Sadhus, Hindu holy men, gather here and stay from the Ekadashi to full moon day in caves. The Pushkar fair is also Asia&#39;s largest camel fair. The colourful and lively Camel Fair reportedly attracts 2 lakh people and 50,000 camels. In this fair held on the banks of the lake, camels are very colourfully decorated and paraded in the sand dunes on the southern part of the lake. Tribes from several neighbouring villages are seen in their traditional colourful costumes. The fair on Kartik Poornima, the day when Brahma is believed to have concluded his Yagna establishing the lake. It is organized by the Rajasthan Tourism Development Corporation (RTDC), Pushkar Municipal Board and the Animal Husbandry Department of Rajasthan. The fair is a colourful cultural event also with folk dances, music, camel races and the cattle fair. The tug of war is a popular entertaining sport held during the fair. This event is held between the Rajasthanis and foreigners; locals invariably win the event.</p><br>
<h2>Status and conservation issues</h2><br>
<p>The natural environment of Pushkar Lake and its precincts has become increasingly degraded in the last few decades. The problems arise primarily from the over development of tourist facilities as well as the deforestation of the surrounding area.</p><br>
<p>The critical issues related to the conservation of the lake have been identified as:</p><br>
<p>Siltation during the rainy season due to soil erosion of the denuded hills and inappropriate agricultural practices flowing through the three feeder streams namely, the Gomukh, the Nag Pahar and Savitri.</p><br>
<p>Shifting sand dunes from hills and surrounding areas causing a rise of the bed level of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Upstream interception by farmers through check dams for farming practices causing reduction in inflows. This reduction is reflected in the full reservoir level of 8.53 m not being achieved during most years, resulting in pilgrim displeasure and the reduction in maximum depth of the lake, reported now as only 4.6 m.</p><br>
<p>Large inflow of sewage from the ghats and the surrounding habitation has caused serious water pollution.</p><br>
<p>Alarming rate of fall in ground water level has occurred in the vicinity of the lake due to high extraction for various uses.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, storage in the Pushkar Lake has been reduced alarmingly, leaving only a small puddle of water in many years during the festival season when pilgrims flock to the lake for sacred bathing during the Hindu holy month of Kartik, when the Pushkar Fair is held. During the 2009 Pushkar fair, the situation became very grim when the lake dried up entirely. Alternate arrangements were made to facilitate sacred bathing by providing water in concrete tanks near one of the upper ghats, fed by tube wells from ground water sources. While the authorities have been blamed for poor planning by de-silting the lake, the drought situation has resulted in insignificant rainfall in the area to fill the lake.</p><br>
<h3>Water quality issues</h3><br>
<p>The lake does not meet the National Water Quality Standards due to its high concentration of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Considering the adverse impact on the lake water quality due to Eutrophication, anthropogenic pressures and holy rituals and tourism, a water quality study was specifically undertaken at four sites on a monthly basis for six months. The sampling sites were chosen to represent the pressure of pilgrims and other pollution inflows at the locations. The water samples were analysed for temperature, pH, salinity, conductivity, total dissolved solids, alkalinity, hardness, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, chloride, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate, sodium, ammonium, potassium, total chlorophyll, biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand. The analysis over the period has revealed that the lake water was alkaline, chloride and conductivity concentrations were high at all the four sites, and there were lower levels of dissolved oxygen (at sites with greater pollution load) and high hardness (on account of excess of calcium and magnesium from surface run-off). During the period of the annual Pushkar Fair, a distinct co-relationship was discerned between various parameters analysed and the degree of water pollution in the lake. This has called for urgent remedial actions to be undertaken by all of the government agencies involved with the lake management, with people&#39;s participation.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration works</h3><br>
<p>To supplement water supply to the lake, even as early as in 1993, the government built 12 deep tube wells to supplement water supply to the lake. However, most tube wells were dysfunctional, thereby aggravating the problem. The Union Ministry for Environment and Forests included Pushkar Lake on a list of five lakes under the National Lake Conservation Project (NLCP) for restoration. They have been providing funds since 2008 for the restoration works, but the situation has not eased.</p><br>
<p>Development plans are under various stages of implementation to address the critical issues related to the lake. They aim to improve water quality, increase water storage capacity, prevent encroachment of the lake periphery, improve the ambience around the lake, as well as to introduce recreational and revenue generating schemes.</p><br>
<p>Sewage outfalls into the lake are proposed to be completely stopped by the interception and diversion of feeder lines. Lining the main feeders into the lake and setting up water treatment plants to continuously treat and recirculate the lake water are also envisioned. Conservation measures proposed for adoption to clean the lake are by way of desilting and deweeding, water treatment at inlet of feeders into the lake, construction of check dams, conservation of ghats, afforestation of denuded hills in the catchment, soil moisture conservation measures, stabilization of sand dunes by planting vegetation of suitable species of plants and restriction of cultivation in the bed of feeder channels. In addition, the institutional measures considered for effecting improvement of the lake are mass awareness programmes with the population&#39;s participation as well as the control of fish proliferation to reduce the risk of death of fishes during periods of inadequate water depth in the lake.</p><br>
<p>The First Unitarian Church of Rochester is located at 220 Winton Road South in Rochester, New York, USA The congregation is one of the largest in its denomination, the Unitarian Universalist Association. The non-creedal church conducts programs in the areas of spirituality, social concerns, music, and arts.</p><br>
<p>The church was organized in 1829. Associated with social reform movements from its earliest days, it began attracting a group of reform activists from Quaker backgrounds in the 1840s, one of whom, Susan B. Anthony, became a national leader of the womens suffrage movement. After the first womens rights convention was held at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848, a follow-up convention, the Rochester Womens Rights Convention, was organized two weeks later at the First Unitarian Church of Rochester. Abigail Bush was elected to preside at this convention even though the idea of a woman chairing a public meeting was considered too daring even for some of the leaders of the emerging womens movement who were present.</p><br>
<p>Concern with social issues has been a recurring theme in the churchs history. In the late 1800s the church provided evening classes and other activities for children in the churchs low-income neighborhood. At the turn of the century, church members played leading roles in the campaign to open the University of Rochester to women and in the local, state, and national campaigns for women&#39;s suffrage. In the 1930s the church provided office space for Planned Parenthood when other accommodations were difficult to find. In 1988 the church began providing classroom support to Rochester city schools. In 2006 the church initiated a program to improve the quality of life in a small township in Honduras. In 2009 it established a talk line to offer non-judgmental support to women who have had abortions.</p><br>
<p>First Unitarians building was designed by Louis Kahn and completed in 1962. It was described as one of "the most significant works of religious architecture of the century" by Paul Goldberger, a Pulitzer-Prize-winning architectural critic. Its exterior is characterized by deeply folded brick walls created by a series of thin, two-story light hoods that shield windows from direct sunlight. The sanctuarys complex ceiling has light towers in each corner to bring in indirect natural light.</p><br>
<p>The story of the design process that Kahn followed at First Unitarian has been described as "almost classic in architectural history and theory". Kahn began by creating what he called a Form drawing to represent the essence of what he intended to build. He drew a square to represent the sanctuary, and around the square he drew concentric circles to indicate an ambulatory, a corridor, and the church school. In the center he placed a question mark to represent his understanding that, in his words, "the form realization of Unitarian activity was bound around that which is Question. Question eternal of why anything."</p><br>
<h2>Congregation, beliefs, and programs</h2><br>
<p>With a membership of 804, the First Unitarian Church of Rochester in Rochester, New York, USA, is one of the largest in its denomination, the Unitarian Universalist Association. Its interim senior minister is Joel Miller. The church conducts three weekly worship services: two on Sundays and one on Saturdays.</p><br>
<p>The church is non-creedal, having, in the words of its web site, "No single religious text. No ten commandments. No creed to which you must agree... This respect for individual particularity and openness to diverse sources of wisdom means our community is packed with a wide array of perspectives and beliefs." The churchs mission statement is: "Creating connection by listening to our deepest selves, opening to lifes gifts and serving needs greater than our own - every day!" The church school has a stated goal of encouraging children "to seek their own truths, to clarify their values, and to live lives of meaning inspired by those values."</p><br>
<p>The church operates on a Policy Governance system by which the board of trustees focuses on the long-term goals of the church while the parish minister oversees its operation. The board specifies the results expected from the parish minister and sets limits for his or her activities. The board does not specify how those expectations should be achieved, but it does evaluate the results. Officers of the church are elected by annual congregational meetings.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s the church developed a task force system to coordinate its activities in the area of social concerns. Members interested in a specific activity gather signatures to qualify as one of the church&#39;s task forces, which, if approved by the congregation, will be eligible to receive funds from the church budget. Oversight is provided by the Social Justice Council, which is composed largely of representatives from the task forces. Through this system, the church sponsors projects that provide classroom support for Rochester schools, temporary shelter within the church for homeless families, free Sunday suppers at a Catholic Worker program, improvements to the quality of life in a small township in Honduras, and other projects that focus on such issues as peace, reproductive rights, and gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender concerns. The Council also oversees grant programs that provide financial support to community organizations.</p><br>
<p>The church&#39;s music and arts programs include a choir, a house band, a handbell choir, a drama group, a chamber music series, a coffee house, and an art gallery. Interest groups sponsored by the church include Soul Matters groups that focus on monthly worship themes, several types of meditation groups, Wellspring groups with programs of daily spiritual practice, Buddhist groups, qi gong, tai chi, book discussion groups, and several types of support groups.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early years</h3><br>
<p>The First Unitarian Church of Rochester was organized in 1829.</p><br>
<p>The city of Rochester, located in western New York, was a young frontier boom town at the time, having been incorporated in 1817 and boosted by the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825. The American Unitarian Association, the Unitarian national body, was also young, having been formed in 1825 by Christians who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.</p><br>
<p>Rochester Unitarians operated in the early years without a settled minister and, except for a brief period, without a church building. Informal leadership was provided by Myron Holley, a former Commissioner of the Erie Canal and one of the founders of the Liberty Party, which advocated the abolition of slavery. An early church history gave Holley primary credit for the church&#39;s establishment.</p><br>
<p>In 1842 Rufus Ellis, at the age of twenty-two, agreed to come to Rochester to be the congregations minister for a one-year period. Ellis lodged at the home of Dr. Matthew Brown, president of the congregation. Brown, who earlier was a member of the First Presbyterian Church, was one of Rochesters founders. Along with his brother, he had developed Browns Race, the canal that delivered water power to Rochesters factory district. He also served as the first chairman of the board of supervisors of Monroe County, in which Rochester is located. Brown was an opponent of slavery; on the day in 1827 when slaves in New York State were emancipated, a delegation of African Americans visited Brown to thank him for his work to secure that legislation.</p><br>
<p>Funds were raised under Ellis leadership for a new church building that was dedicated in 1843. In a letter to his brother, Ellis noted that "Forty-five of the pews are already sold or rented, and are occupied by correct people." During Ellis ministry the church approved a seal that contained an image of the Bible and the words "our Creed". Membership grew partly as a result of the Finney revival movement, which generated a wave of religious enthusiasm so strong in western New York that the area was sometimes called the "burned-over district." Not all churchgoers were comfortable with the new atmosphere in their congregations, however, and some transferred to the less doctrinaire Unitarian Church.</p><br>
<p>Frederick Holland, who became minister of First Unitarian in 1843, helped to stabilize the new congregation and increase its membership. He resigned in 1848 to assume leadership of the American Unitarian Association.</p><br>
<p>Dissention within the Quaker community eventually led some of its members to First Unitarian. When objections were raised to abolitionist activities, about 200 people withdrew from the regional Hicksite Quaker body in 1848 and formed an organization called the Congregational Friends. This group soon changed its name to the Friends of Human Progress and ceased to operate as a religious body, focusing instead on organizing annual meetings in Waterloo, New York that welcomed anyone interested in social reform, including "Christians, Jews, Mahammedans, and Pagans". In July 1848, a month after the split, four women associated with the Quaker dissidents met in Waterloo with anti-slavery activist Elizabeth Cady Stanton and issued a call for a Womens Rights Convention to be held a short distance away in Seneca Falls, thereby launching the modern womens rights movement. Organized on short notice, it nonetheless drew about 300 people, largely from the immediate area.</p><br>
<p>Momentum from this event led to the organization of another women&#39;s rights convention two weeks later at the First Unitarian Church of Rochester, about 50 mi west. The Rochester Convention took the significant step of electing a woman to preside, an idea that seemed so radical at the time that Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, two organizers of the Seneca Falls convention, opposed it and left the platform when Abigail Bush took the chair. She performed her duties without incident, and a precedent was established.</p><br>
<p>The convention at First Unitarian was organized mainly by a circle of activists in Rochester led by Amy and Isaac Post, who had resigned from their Hicksite Quaker congregation in the mid-1840s when opposition to the Post&#39;s abolitionist activities was raised in the Quaker congregation. Several members of this circle had participated in the Seneca Falls convention, including Mary Hallowell, Catherine Fish Stebbins, and Amy Post, who convened the meeting at First Unitarian. Some of the organizers of the Rochester convention were also associated with First Unitarian, including Hallowell, Stebbins and Post.</p><br>
<p>A church history written in 1929 said, "Our church was probably by strong majority abolitionist, an earnest group of Hicksite Quakers having attached themselves to the church as their own meeting grew inactive and faded out—the Anthonys, Hallowells, Willises, Posts, Fishes, etc."</p><br>
<p>Of these families, the Anthonys were particularly significant for First Unitarian. Daniel Anthony was born a Quaker but married Lucy Reid, a Baptist, a violation of Quaker rules for which he was required to apologize to his congregation in central New York.</p><br>
<p>Susan B. Anthony, another Anthony daughter, was teaching school in central New York at the time and had little involvement with any of these activities. When she returned to Rochester in 1849, she found her family attending worship services at First Unitarian. She joined her family there, making it her church home</p><br>
<p>Susan B. Anthony is best known as an organizer and campaigner for womens rights, but she promoted other social reforms as well. In 1851 she helped sponsor an anti-slavery convention at First Unitarian. In 1852 she helped bring 500 women to Rochester to create the Womens State Temperance Society, of which she became the state agent. In 1853 she organized a Womens Rights Convention in Rochester with the assistance of the minister of First Unitarian. In 1857 she served as clerk of the Friends of Human Progress, the social reform group created by dissident Quakers and also became upstate New York agent for the American Anti-Slavery Society. She helped organize two more anti-slavery conventions in Rochester, one of which was so threatened by mob violence that she and her associates had to be escorted from the building by police for their own safety. Anthonys reform work, especially in the national campaign for women&#39;s right to vote, led her to spend most of her subsequent years on the road until advancing age required her to cut back on traveling and settle once again in Rochester.</p><br>
<p>After Rev. Holland&#39;s departure from First Unitarian in 1848, the congregation entered a period of discord and short-term ministries that lasted until after the Civil War. A history of the church written in 1881 notes that some of its members during that period "were persons of extreme and pronounced opinions, sharply opposed to each other on political and social questions," with slavery a key item of contention. and one of whom went on to become a chaplain in the Confederate Army.</p><br>
<p>A prominent minister of First Unitarian during this unsettled period was William Henry Channing, who served from 1853 to 1854. He wrote one of the two appeals that Anthony circulated as part of her women&#39;s suffrage work in New York state.</p><br>
<p>Channing wrote a brief inspirational text that has become known as "Channing&#39;s Symphony," which reads: "To live content with small means; to seek elegance rather than luxury, and refinement rather than fashion; to be worthy, not respectable, and wealthy, not rich; to listen to stars and birds, babes and sages, with open heart; to study hard; to think quietly, act frankly, talk gently, await occasions, hurry never; in a word, to let the spiritual, unbidden and unconscious, grow up through the common – this is my symphony."</p><br>
<p>Channing was important to the Anthony family. Mary Anthony said "The liberal preaching of William Henry Channing in 1852 proved so satisfactory that it was not long before this was our accepted church home." Susan B. Anthonys sense of spirituality was influenced by Channing. Her friend and co-worker Elizabeth Cady Stanton said in 1898, "She first found words to express her convictions in listening to Rev. William Henry Channing, whose teaching had a lasting spiritual influence upon her. To-day Miss Anthony is an agnostic. As to the nature of the Godhead and of the life beyond her horizon she does not profess to know anything. Every energy of her soul is centered upon the needs of this world. To her, work is worship... Her belief is not orthodox, but it is religious." Anthony expressed the latter thought in these words: "Work and worship are one with me. I can not imagine a God of the universe made happy by my getting down on my knees and calling him great.&#39;"</p><br>
<p>Channing had little success with his factionalized congregation. Finding that he could attract larger audiences when he spoke outside the church than within it, he even considered making a fresh start by forming a movement separate from the church. Instead he left the city for other posts, serving as chaplain of the USA House of Representatives during the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The church declined afterwards, sometimes finding it difficult to pay its ministers, none of whom served for long. In 1859 the church&#39;s building was destroyed by fire. Rochester Unitarians were once again without either minister or building, a situation that was not resolved until after the Civil War."</p><br>
<h3>After the Civil War</h3><br>
<p>Frederick Holland, who had served as First Unitarian&#39;s minister in the 1840s, returned in 1865 as minister for an additional three years to help the congregation band together and construct a new church building, which was dedicated in 1866.</p><br>
<p>The ministry of Newton Mann, who served from 1870 to 1888, was a period of stability and growth.</p><br>
<p>Mann supported the idea that the Bible has a human rather than a supernatural origin in A Rational View of the Bible, written in 1879, saying that a rational approach to the Bible makes it more appealing by giving it "a purely human quality which quite atones for all the mistakes it contains."</p><br>
<p>In 1870 Mann was invited to give an evening lecture at Temple Brith Kodesh, Rochesters oldest and largest synagogue. This interfaith event, the first of its type in Rochester, contributed to a formal split between reformers and traditionalists within Brith Kodesh and, according to The Jewish Community in Rochester by Stuart Rosenberg, "shook the Jewish community in America and even had reverberations abroad." First Unitarian and Brith Kodesh held a joint Thanksgiving service in 1871, and Rabbi Landsberg and Rev. Mann began the practice of exchanging pulpits, with each delivering the sermon for the others congregation. A history of Brith Kodesh describes the relationship between the two congregations during this period as "extremely close". In 1874 First Unitarian, Brith Kodesh, and the First Universalist Church of Rochester began their continuing tradition of holding annual Union Thanksgiving services. In 1884 Landsberg occupied the pulpit at First Unitarian for seven weeks while Mann was ill, attracting visitors from other denominations and, according to an early Rochester history, leading to speculation about the development of a universal church. The congregation of Brith Kodesh used First Unitarian as a temporary home in 1909 after their building was destroyed by fire.</p><br>
<p>In 1872 Susan B. Anthony convinced the election inspectors in her ward in Rochester that the recently enacted Fourteenth Amendment, which guaranteed equal protection to all citizens, implicitly gave women the right to vote. When the news spread that Anthony and her three sisters had succeeded in registering to vote, other women in Rochester also registered. Of the two dozen or so whose names are known, at least three worshiped with Anthony at First Unitarian. Mrs. Mann, the wife of First Unitarian&#39;s minister, attempted to register in her ward but was refused. On election day, only fifteen of those who had registered, including Anthony, were actually permitted to vote, and then only because the election inspector in that ward, a long-time abolitionist, defied orders and allowed them to do so. Susan B. Anthony was arrested for voting and found guilty in a widely publicized trial that generated protests across the country.</p><br>
<p>In 1878 the annual meeting of the National Woman Suffrage Association, which was founded by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, convened at the First Unitarian Church of Rochester on the thirtieth anniversary of the first Women&#39;s Suffrage Convention in Seneca Falls.</p><br>
<p>In 1883 First Unitarian vacated its building to make way for the construction of a new post office. To replace it, the congregation purchased an existing church building from the Third Presbyterian Church of Rochester, which had moved to another location.</p><br>
<h3>Gannett ministry</h3><br>
<p>William Channing Gannett served as minister from 1889 to 1908. He came from a prominent Unitarian family, his father, Ezra Stiles Gannett, having written the constitution for the American Unitarian Association and served as its first secretary. William Channing Gannett himself had gained prominence as a leader of the successful movement within the denomination to end the practice of binding it by a formal creed, thereby opening its membership to non-Christians and even to non-theists. While pastor of a Unitarian church in Wisconsin before coming to Rochester, he had served as vice president of that states womens suffrage association.</p><br>
<p>Mary Thorn Lewis Gannett, Rev. Gannett&#39;s wife, was "very nearly his co-pastor," according to a church history. In Rochester, however, she was active in the First Unitarian Church and assisted in the formation of several community organizations.</p><br>
<p>The Gannetts focused their energy on social issues. Urging the congregation to be "a seven-day instead of a one-day church", Rev. Gannett encouraged it to become more involved with its downtown neighborhood of low-income immigrants.</p><br>
<p>The Gannetts accordingly initiated the Boys Evening Home, which opened in 1890 in the churchs parish house. Within three months its membership had grown to 95 even though some of its members had to leave because they had been sentenced to the State Industrial School. By 1893 the Home had a paid superintendent and was teaching classes in manual arts and drawing, and by 1898 its offerings had expanded to include such subjects as current events, zoology, literature and journalism. A small newspaper produced by the boys campaigned against penny slot machines, which were illegal gambling devices that could be found in candy stores. The neighborhood boys came largely from Polish and Russian Jewish immigrant families. When they reached their late teens, several members of the Boys Evening Home formed the Judean Club in Rochester, which eventually became, according to Rosenbergs The Jewish Community in Rochester, "the most important cultural forum in the Jewish community of that time." At least four members of the Boys Evening Home went on to become rabbis, one of whom credited Rev. Gannett with helping him choose that profession. Benjamin Goldstein, another member, became executive secretary of Temple Brith Kodesh. Another former member, Meyer Jacobstein, was elected to the House of Representatives in Washington. Volunteers from Brith Kodesh assisted the work of the Boys Evening Home.</p><br>
<p>From 1889 to 1908 Mary Gannett led First Unitarians Womens Alliance, through which "much of the churchs activity was organized and executed". About 1902 the Womens Alliance opened the Neighborhood Friendly for Girls, which provided classes in housekeeping, cooking, and sewing for girls in the church neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The Gannetts sponsored the formation of the Unity Club in 1889, which was initiated by the Womens Alliance but was open to anyone in Rochester. With as many as a hundred members, it was divided into small classes under the tutelage of the Gannetts for the intensive study of such thinkers as Thoreau, Hawthorne, George Eliot, and the Fabians. The secretary of the Social Topics class, which examined social problems of the day, was Emma Sweet, a member of First Unitarian who was Susan B. Anthonys secretary.</p><br>
<p>In 1889 Mary Gannett established the Woman&#39;s Ethical Club, an interfaith organization that discussed the ethical aspects of social topics and campaigned for the admission of women to the University of Rochester. By the middle of the 1890s, the Ethical Club was attracting several hundred women to its meetings.</p><br>
<p>Other members of First Unitarian engaged in social and political work during the Gannett years. Mary Anthony, sister of Susan B. Anthony, was active in many aspects of church life and was also deeply involved with the campaign for womens rights. In 1885 a group of women gathered at her home to establish the Womens Political Club, later known as the Political Equality Club. This group of about forty women achieved several breakthroughs, including the appointment of Rochesters first police matron, the placement of women doctors on the citys health staff, and the appointment of women to state institutional boards. Mary Gannett was a member of the club for over twenty years and held various offices.</p><br>
<p>In 1891 African American activist Hester C. Jeffrey moved to Rochester. She joined Rochesters AME Zion Church and helped organize womens clubs in the African American community. She also developed strong ties to First Unitarian, often attending services there and forming close friendships with Susan B. Anthony and Mary Gannett. She joined the Political Equality Club and created a suffrage club for African American women called the Susan B. Anthony Club. In 1895, while keeping her membership in AME Zion, she also became a member of First Unitarian.</p><br>
<p>In 1891, at the age of 71, Susan B. Anthony decided to limit her work that required travel and to settle into the house she shared with her sister Mary in Rochester. She resumed routine attendance at First Unitarian, Later that year she was invited to speak at the annual Union Thanksgiving service, which was held that year at First Unitarian. Its theme was "The Unrest of the Times a Cause for Thankfulness". Anthony spoke on the women&#39;s movement.</p><br>
<p>In 1893 Susan B. Anthony became the main force behind the formation of the Rochester branch of the Women&#39;s Educational and Industrial Union, which worked for the educational and social advancement of women. Mary Gannett presided at the founding meeting and became the chair of its Legal Protection Committee, often becoming personally involved in protecting working women from dishonest employers. In 1911 she became president of the organization.</p><br>
<p>In 1893 Mary Anthony became corresponding secretary of the New York State Woman Suffrage Association. During the statewide drive that year for the right of women to vote in New York elections, the Anthony home was converted into campaign headquarters, with public offices in the parlor and other activities throughout the rest of the house.</p><br>
<p>In 1898 Susan B. Anthony called and chaired a meeting of 73 local womens societies to form the Rochester Council of Women, later known as the Rochester Federation of Womens Clubs. At its first meeting it renewed the campaign to elect a woman to the local school board even though women were still not allowed to vote. Mary Gannett, speaking for both the Council of Women and the Womens Educational and Industrial Union, played a major role in this campaign, which succeeded when both major parties were convinced to nominate the same woman. The Council of Womens consumers committee, headed by Mrs. Max (Miriam) Landsberg of Brith Kodesh and Mary Gannett, developed into the local chapter of the National Consumers League.</p><br>
<p>The long campaign to open the University of Rochester to women students involved several members of First Unitarian and organizations they had helped to create. The Democrat and Chronicle, a local newspaper, writing several years after the event, said that next to Susan B. Anthony, Mary Gannett was chiefly responsible for the success of this campaign.</p><br>
<p>Susan B. Anthony had formed a committee as early as 1879 to pressure the university to admit women, but without success. In 1889 the Womens Political Club renewed the campaign with a series of articles in local newspapers. During a meeting in 1891 at the Anthony home, university officials agreed to admit women if $200,000 could be raised to defray costs. The Womens Ethical Club initiated a fund-raising drive, and Susan B. Anthony and Rev. William Channing Gannett appealed for contributions at a public meeting at the Chamber of Commerce. This drive, however, was unsuccessful.</p><br>
<p>In 1898 the university once again agreed to admit women if enough money could be raised and in 1899 lowered the necessary amount to $50,000. Most of that amount had already been raised, with Mary Gannett playing a leading role in that effort. Just after Susan B. Anthony returned home from a trip to Wyoming, however, she was informed the evening before the deadline that the drive was still $8000 short. With seemingly no possibility of raising additional money, and with renewed opposition among the university trustees, this drive seemed to have failed also. Determined to succeed, Susan B. Anthony, at the age of 81, rode the next morning in a carriage in a last-minute push to close the funding gap, which she accomplished by raising the entire amount from members of First Unitarian, including herself and her sister Mary.</p><br>
<p>Although Susan B. Anthony worked on several local projects during this period, she remained deeply involved in national activities as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, working for an amendment to give women the right to vote. Generally known as the Anthony Amendment, it became the Nineteenth Amendment to the USA Constitution in 1920. When the Anthony sisters traveled to Berlin in 1904 for the founding of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, Susan B. Anthony was declared its first member and Mary Anthony its second.</p><br>
<h3>Early to mid-1900s</h3><br>
<p>Edwin A. Rumball, who served as minister from 1908 to 1915, continued the orientation toward social service that had been established in the Gannett years. In 1910 the churchs parish house was expanded to provide better quarters for the Boys Evening Home and was named Gannett House to honor Rev. Gannett, who had retired two years earlier.</p><br>
<p>From 1910 to 1914 Rumball edited The Common Good, which "emerged as Rochesters leading journal of progressive reform" according to Affirming the Covenant: A History of Temple Brith Kodesh by Peter Eisenstadt. The magazine began in 1907 as the house bulletin of the Baden Street Settlement House, which was founded by the Temple Brith Kodesh Sisterhood to serve a neighborhood of mostly Jewish immigrants. When Rumball became editor in 1910, it expanded into a monthly journal devoted to social betterment of the city. Campaigning for such things as cleaner milk supplies and better conditions for factory workers, the publication was fatally weakened when a strike in the local clothing industry created an atmosphere of bitterness that led to a sharp decline in advertising revenues, which in turn led to the magazines demise in 1914.</p><br>
<p>Rumball became the secretary of the Rochester City Club when it was formally organized in 1910 to provide programs for weekly luncheons at a downtown hotel. Membership grew to be in the hundreds, and the programs, which included such speakers as Jane Addams and Felix Frankfurter, often made headline news. Women, who had their own Women&#39;s City Club, were expected to listen from the balcony. Mary Gannett created a stir by inviting two African American men to sit with her in the balcony who later joined the club as regular members. She was also invited to accompany two speakers to the platform: anarchist Emma Goldman and African American scholar and activist W. E. B. Du Bois. She joined the club herself when membership was opened to women in 1937.</p><br>
<p>Frank Doan became the minister of First Unitarian in 1922. Formerly a professor at the Meadville Unitarian seminary, he was one of the originators of the religious humanism movement within the denomination. He retired in 1925 at the age of 48 because of ill health and died two years later.</p><br>
<p>David Rhys Williams was minister from 1928 to 1958. In 1933 Williams became one of the 34 signers of the Humanist Manifesto, which, among other things, declared the universe to be self-existing and not created, rejected the duality between mind and body, and called for religion to be reformed in light of the scientific spirit.</p><br>
<p>Williams was an advocate of family planning and served on the executive committee of the local Birth Control League. The federal Comstock laws made it difficult at that time to be closely associated with any aspect of birth control. When Margaret Sanger, a national leader of the family planning movement, spoke at Temple B&#39;rith Kodesh in 1932, she was arrested for answering a question from the audience about where birth control devices could be obtained. Williams preached a sermon on "The Spiritual Significance of Voluntary Motherhood" and invited Sanger to speak from the pulpit at First Unitarian a few weeks after she was arrested. A group of eight women, including Wilma Lord Perkins from First Unitarian, subsequently formed an organization that eventually became Planned Parenthood of Rochester/Syracuse. When the organization found it difficult to obtain office space elsewhere, First Unitarian provided them space in Gannett House from 1934 to 1937.</p><br>
<p>In 1933 a group of Quakers began meeting in the home of Mary Gannett for the purpose of reestablishing a formal presence in Rochester, where the last Quaker organization had disbanded in 1915. The new Quaker group began holding worship services the following year in Gannett House, First Unitarian&#39;s parish house. Gannett encouraged the new organization while continuing to devote her support activities to the First Unitarian Church of Rochester.</p><br>
<p>In 1940 Time magazine gave the church national publicity with an article about its ordination of James Ziglar Hanner as a Unitarian minister in an unusual ceremony that included two rabbis. Rabbi Phillip S. Bernstein of Brith Kodesh gave Hanner his pastoral charge, basing it on the Hebrew text The Ethics of the Fathers. The service closed with the singing of Yigdal, the hymn that had been translated from Hebrew to English in 1883 by Rabbi Landsberg of Brith Kodesh and Rev. Mann of First Unitarian. Ziglar began his ministry in Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>In 1953, during the McCarthy period, Williams&#39; brother, Albert Rhys Williams, was accused by the House Un-American Activities Committee of having supported the Communist Party from 1919 to 1929. Rev. Williams supported his brother and criticized his attackers. Thirteen members of the congregation accused Williams of being soft on Communism and attempted to have him dismissed from the pulpit. When the issue was put to a congregational vote, the only votes against Williams were the thirteen who had made the accusation, all of whom subsequently left the church. A prominent member of First Unitarian who supported Williams during this controversy was Frank Gannett, founder of the Gannett newspaper chain, who had campaigned for the Republican nomination to run against Franklin Delano Roosevelt in the 1940 presidential elections.</p><br>
<p>In 1957 several members of the congregation formed the Rochester Memorial Society, later called the Funeral Consumers Alliance of Greater Rochester, to encourage simple rather than ostentatious funeral services. By 1975 its membership had grown to over a thousand families. As of 2011, its mailing address continued to be the same as that of First Unitarian.</p><br>
<h3>New building by Louis Kahn</h3><br>
<p>In 1958 Williams announced his intention to retire after 30 years of service. Three months later, while searching for his replacement, the church was informed that a project to build a downtown shopping mall would require the space occupied by their building, forcing the church to deal with two major issues at the same time.</p><br>
<p>The existing building had several deficiencies, and the church had been wrestling with problems of growth. Church committees had been investigating several alternatives including expanding the existing building, constructing a new church school, establishing daughter congregations, and purchasing the building that Temple B&#39;rith Kodesh was vacating.</p><br>
<p>The church voted to sell their building to the Midtown Plaza developers in January 1959 with the understanding that they could continue to occupy it until July 1961. Construction activity nearby, however, soon weakened the building, forcing the congregation to move in September 1959. The church held Sunday services at the Dryden Theatre of the George Eastman House until a new building could be constructed.</p><br>
<p>The congregation voted to hire Louis Kahn in June 1959 to design their new building, which was completed in 1962. Details are below under Architecture.</p><br>
<h3>Mid-1900s to present</h3><br>
<p>In 1961 the American Unitarian Association and the Universalist Church of America merged to form the Unitarian Universalist Association. The possibility of merging Rochester&#39;s First Unitarian and First Universalist churches, which had conducted a joint church school in the 1950s and whose buildings had been only a block apart before the old Unitarian church was demolished two years earlier, was considered but not acted upon.</p><br>
<p>William Jenkins was minister from 1959 to 1963 and also served as president of the newly merged Unitarian Universalist Ministers’ Association. Robert West was minister from 1963 until 1969, when he resigned to become president of the Unitarian Universalist Association.</p><br>
<p>In 1963 the church&#39;s Social Action Committee played the key role in creating Community Interests, Inc, an organization that provided minority families with housing loans. That organization was later absorbed by the Monroe County Housing Council.</p><br>
<p>In 1964 rapid growth in membership led the church to begin offering two Sunday worship services and church school sessions, with classes for older children relocated to the Harley School to ease crowding. Despite having originally informed Kahn that there would be no need to design the church to accommodate future enlargement, the church trustees decided in September 1964, less than two years after it was completed, to expand the building. Louis Kahn was hired once again as architect, and the addition was completed in May 1969.</p><br>
<p>Richard Gilbert served as minister from 1970 until his retirement in 2002. Gilbert became one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II in 1973. During the 1970s Gilbert was a member of the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion, a group of ministers and rabbis who helped women find safe abortions at a time when it was still illegal.</p><br>
<p>In 1980 Gilbert wrote The Prophetic Imperative: Unitarian Universalist Foundations for a New Social Gospel, a book used in seminars given by the denomination&#39;s Social Justice Empowerment Program. In 1983 Gilbert published the first of three volumes of Building Your Own Theology, a guidebook for examining and clarifying personal values and beliefs in a group setting. It became the most widely used adult education curriculum within the denomination.</p><br>
<p>In 1982 church member Joyce Gilbert called a meeting that led to the formation of the Unitarian Universalist Musicians Network. She and Ed Schell, First Unitarians Minister of Music, served first as members of the organizing committee and then as presidents of the new organization. With a membership of several hundred, the organization played a major role in producing the denominations new hymnals.</p><br>
<p>In 1988 the church volunteers began providing classroom support to Rochester city schools in a program called the UU/Schools Partnership.</p><br>
<p>Kaaren Anderson and Scott Tayler arrived as Parish Co-Ministers in 2004. In 2006 the church began its Greater Good Project, which asks members to cut their usual Holiday spending in half and contribute the other half to community projects. In its first year the congregation contributed $79,000, part of which was used to initiate the church&#39;s Honduras Project, which works to improve the quality of life in a small Honduras township.</p><br>
<p>In 2007 the church originated Wellspring, a program of spiritual deepening that has since been adopted by other Unitarian Universalist congregations.</p><br>
<p>In 2009 the church&#39;s Reproductive Rights Task Force began the process of establishing a talk line to offer "support without judgment" to women who have had abortions.</p><br>
<p>Because of growth in membership, in 2010 the church began offering a Saturday worship service in addition to the two Sunday services.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<h3>Choosing an architect</h3><br>
<p>First Unitarian&#39;s previous building was architecturally significant, having been designed by Richard Upjohn, a prominent nineteenth-century architect and the first president of the American Institute of Architects. The church decided in 1959 to replace it with a building designed "by a leading 20th century architect, giving the community a notable example of contemporary architecture." Details about the decision to replace the existing building are above under New building by Louis Kahn.</p><br>
<p>The search committee, formed of church members who were knowledgeable about architecture, decided to focus on prominent architects who had established relatively small offices and did most of the creative work themselves. They contacted six architects. Frank Lloyd Wright expressed little interest and his fees were high. (Wright died shortly afterward at the age of 91.) Eero Saarinen was considered but was unable to take the job because of his time constraints. The committee also met with Paul Rudolph, Walter Gropius, and Carl Koch. They spent a day with Louis Kahn in May 1959 and were impressed by his philosophical approach, the atmosphere in his office, the assurance that he would personally be in charge of the design, his respect for the integrity of materials, and the perception that his architecture, while modern, had an emotional depth and a connection to the past.</p><br>
<p>Robin B. Williams, writing in Louis I. Kahn: In the Realm of Architecture, says Kahn appealed to them also because of "the high compatibility of his philosophy with Unitarian ideas". who was an important figure in Unitarian history. Committee members said they were convinced that Kahn was "a natural Unitarian."</p><br>
<p>Kahn&#39;s social and political outlook also was compatible with that of the Rochester congregation and its history of concern with social issues. During the Great Depression Kahn worked with labor unions and civic agencies to design inexpensive housing. He worked as assistant architect on the Jersey Homesteads, a project to resettle Jewish garment workers from New York City and Philadelphia to a kibbutz-like rural collective that combined farming and manufacturing. During the presidential election of 1948, Kahn worked with the third-party campaign of Henry A. Wallace, who ran on the Progressive Party ticket.</p><br>
<p>Kahn gave a philosophical presentation of his ideas to a congregational meeting in June 1959, after which the church commissioned him to design their new building. During that same visit Kahn helped choose the site to be purchased for the new building. The church hired Kahn just as his career was entering a new stage that would bring him increased attention. Later that year Kahn was chosen to design the Salk Institute, and in 1962 he was selected to design the National Assembly complex for what would become the capital of the new nation of Bangladesh.</p><br>
<h3>Design process</h3><br>
<p>The story of the design process at First Unitarian, including Kahn&#39;s creation of what he called a Form drawing, "is almost classic in architectural history and theory" according to Katrine Lotz, a professor at the School of Architecture of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts.</p><br>
<p>Kahns approach was to design each building as if it were the first of its kind. August Komendant, a structural engineer who worked closely with Kahn, said that during the initial design stages Kahn wrestled with questions like "How would one design a Unitarian Church? What is the Unitarian religion?" and studied Unitarianism thoroughly. The result sometimes confounded expectations. When the completed First Unitarian Church was shown at an architectural exhibition in the Soviet Union, the mayor of Leningrad commented that it did not look like a church. (Kahn jokingly responded, "Thats why it was chosen for exhibition in the Soviet Union.")</p><br>
<p>The church&#39;s building committee provided Kahn with information from questionnaires filled out by church members to indicate what they desired from their new building. These questionnaires went beyond normal fact-gathering about functional requirements to include aspects of the Unitarian faith that the building should express. Among other things, they said, the new building should be supportive of the broader community and should express "the dignity rather than the depravity of man."</p><br>
<p>The congregations broad approach to the statement of requirements was similar to Kahns philosophical approach to architectural design. Kahn explained this approach in Form and Design, an article he wrote while working on this project. Using the First Unitarian Church of Rochester as an example, Kahn said, "A great building, in my opinion, must begin with the unmeasurable, must go through measurable means when it is being designed and in the end must be unmeasurable... But what is unmeasurable is the psychic spirit." Kahn associated the unmeasurable with what he called Form, saying that, "Form is not design, not a shape, not a dimension. It is not a material thing." "Form... characterizes a harmony of spaces good for a certain activity of man."</p><br>
<p>When Kahn addressed the congregational meeting that voted to hire him, he explained his approach by creating what he called a Form drawing, which, he said, was not to be understood as an architectural design. He drew a square that represented the sanctuary, and around the square he placed concentric circles representing an ambulatory, a corridor and the church school. In the center of the square he placed a question mark that, he explained on another occasion, represented his understanding that "the form realization of Unitarian activity was bound around that which is Question. Question eternal of why anything."</p><br>
<p>Kahn delivered his first design in December 1959, proposing a square building three stories high with four-story towers in each corner. The sanctuary was a square area in the middle of a large twelve-sided room at the center of the building. The remainder of the near-circular room was an ambulatory space that was to be screened from the sanctuary. Kahn said, "The ambulatory I felt necessary because the Unitarian Church is made up of people who have had previous beliefs... So I drew the ambulatory to respect the fact that what is being said or what is felt in a sanctuary was not necessarily something you have to participate in. And so you could walk and feel free to walk away from what is being said." Kahn had developed the idea for this type of ambulatory prior to his work on First Unitarian, referring to it during a talk in 1957 in the context of a university chapel.</p><br>
<p>The central room was to be capped by a complex dome and encircled by a corridor outside its walls that would provide connections to the three-story church school on the periphery of the building. Pupils in the school would be able to observe church services from open spaces above.</p><br>
<p>Prompted by complaints about the cost, which was several times the amount that had been budgeted, Kahn quickly dropped one story from the proposed building. The committee, however, was also unhappy with other aspects of the design, such as its inflexibility and shortage of useful classroom space, the irregularly shaped rooms on the periphery created by the placement of a large, near-circular room within a square building, and the potential for services to be disturbed by children listening above and by people drifting in and out of the sanctuary. In February 1960, Helen Williams, the chair of the building committee, wrote to Kahn saying "we are not in any measure happy with the present concept which you have given us," and a week later she wrote, "We remain steadfast in the conclusion that we must have an entirely new concept". Stating that "Kahn has failed us miserably", Williams resigned in frustration from the building committee shortly afterward.</p><br>
<p>Kahn agreed to create a new design, much to the relief of the building committee, who feared that he would demand payment for work performed and walk away from the commission.</p><br>
<p>The roof over the sanctuary was one of the last aspects of the design to be completed. Komendant kept Kahn&#39;s general layout of the roof but redesigned it as a folded-plate structure of pre-stressed concrete that would be self-supporting, eliminating the need for the massive concrete beams that Kahn had been planning to use as supports for the roof structure.</p><br>
<p>During the design process, Kahn and the church developed a relationship of close collaboration. Kahn initially planned to bring natural light into the sanctuary through light slits in an array of concrete caps on the roof, but the building committee calculated that each cap would weigh 33 tons (30,000 kg), creating problems of support. The light towers in Kahn&#39;s final design are glazed only on their inner sides, a suggestion that originated with the committee. The committee notified Kahn that their calculations of acoustical resonance in the proposed light shafts indicated the possibility of problems in that area.</p><br>
<p>The new design was overwhelmingly approved by the congregation in August 1960. At the dedication of the new building in December 1962, Kahn talked about the relationship between architecture and religion. Komendant said, "He told me that in his speech he described the cathedrals, whose size and height was intended to show Gods greatness and might and mans lowness, so that men would be frightened and obey His laws. For this church he used atmosphere and beauty to create respect and understanding for God&#39;s aims, kindness, and forgiveness."</p><br>
<h3>Exterior</h3><br>
<p>The exterior of the building is characterized by deeply folded brick walls created by a series of thin, two-story light hoods that help shield windows from direct sunlight. Between the light hoods on the ground floor are projections of the building that enclose bench seats in the interior. Small windows on each side of the bench seats allow additional indirect light into the rooms. The light hoods create a series of shadows on the exterior wall that are reminiscent of a row of columns, their vertical lines adding to the impression of height. The main entrance to the building is not visible to people passing by on the street.</p><br>
<p>Light towers in each of the four corners of the sanctuary rise above the building&#39;s outer walls, making the shape of the sanctuary easy to visualize from outside. The impression that Kahn created of the sanctuary imbedded within the larger building is similar to the "box within a box" approach he used in several other buildings, notably the Phillips Exeter Academy Library.</p><br>
<p>The building echoes the design of the Scottish castles that fascinated Kahn, particularly Comlongon Castle, whose floor plan is reproduced in two different scholarly discussions of First Unitarian. In Kahn&#39;s words, "the school became the walls which surrounded the question."</p><br>
<p>The church hired Kahn in 1964 to design an addition, which was completed in 1969. Its exterior is relatively unarticulated, in contrast to the sculpted walls of the original building. Built on a slope, it has two main floors and a lower level at its easternmost end, with complex windows on the two main floors.</p><br>
<p>The building&#39;s footprint is 14,900 ft&sup2;. According to scale drawings, the irregularly-shaped building is approximately 230 x at its longest and widest points. Of that length, approximately the easternmost 75 ft is the 1969 addition.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>Instead of a grand entrance at the front of the building leading straight into the sanctuary, entry into First Unitarian is by way of a doorway at the side of the building that requires a right turn past other spaces to reach the sanctuary. The sanctuary is entered beneath the low ceiling of the cantilevered choir loft, creating a sequence from shadow into light.</p><br>
<p>"Civilization is measured by the shape of your ceiling," said Kahn. The complex ceiling of the sanctuary rises above both floors of surrounding rooms and extends over the sanctuary wall to the outer walls of the corridor outside. Light towers in the four corners of the sanctuary bring in indirect natural light from areas that are not typically well lit. The ceilings layered outer edges and light-filled corners give the room "an expansive, boundless character", according to Kahn biographer Robert McCarter. Kahn said, "If you think about it, you realize that you dont say the same thing in a small room as you do in a large room."</p><br>
<p>Between the light towers is a cruciform concrete roof structure with a shape something like the underside of a ships hull. Its outer edges do not sit directly on the sanctuary walls but rise above them, relieving what could be a perception of oppressive weightiness, according to Carter Wiseman, one of Kahns biographers.</p><br>
<p>The massive ceiling structure is partly supported by twelve slender columns embedded in the sanctuary walls, three columns per wall. Square brackets on top of the central column in each wall support the lower folds of the slab. The brackets are split in the middle to allow the fold to be perceived as passing through to the outer corridor walls, which provide much of the ceiling support. Each central column is braced to the columns on either side by horizontal beams. The ceiling is lowest and darkest in the center, the opposite of classic church domes that are highest and brightest in the center. The cruciform shape that Kahn used for the ceiling is one that he had used in previous works, notably the Jewish Community Center of Trenton, New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>The tapestries on the sanctuary walls were designed by Kahn and, like the building itself, contain no literal symbolism. They were woven by Jack Lenor Larsen. At Kahn&#39;s request, the panels span the full color spectrum and yet were constructed entirely from one red, one blue, and one yellow yarn, with the remaining shades created with blends of those three yarns. The panels were designed not only for visual effect but also to correct a problem of sound reverberating from the concrete walls.</p><br>
<p>The primary building materials of the interior are concrete block, poured concrete and wood. Kahn left the natural surfaces of these materials exposed rather than applying an additional finish. This was Kahn&#39;s first extensive use of concrete and wood together, a combination he used in most of his later projects.</p><br>
<p>The sanctuary walls are 2 ft thick and are built of concrete blocks. Hollow spaces within the walls function as ventilation ducts. The roof support columns embedded in the sanctuary walls are made of poured concrete, as is the roof and the outer walls of the corridor around the sanctuary. Left visible are patterns made by the thin strips of wood that composed the forms into which the concrete was poured. Kahn procured unusually long strips of wood to construct the forms for the sanctuary ceiling. As he had done earlier with the main stairwell in the Yale University Art Gallery, Kahn also left visible the pattern of circular holes created by the devices that held the forms together while concrete was being poured for the walls, letting the marks of construction serve as the "basis for ornament".</p><br>
<p>Sherri Geldin, writing of Kahn in the prologue to Louis I. Kahn: In the Realm of Architecture, said: "He attached almost mythic significance to the meeting place, to any setting where communal interaction occurs... His religious buildings and projects... aspire to evoke a state of grace that is without dogma or sectarian distinctions, underscoring instead that which is universal and transcendent."</p><br>
<p>During the initial design discussions, Kahn asked Komendant, "What is most important in a church?" and then answered that question himself by saying "the essence of atmosphere for a church is silence and light. Light and Silence!" Silence and Light later became the name of an essay that Kahn wrote in 1968 in which he explained concepts crucial to his philosophy. Robert Twombly, an editor of Kahns writings, said that by silence, Kahn meant "the desire... of every person to create, which for Kahn was the same thing as being alive... To the silence of humanitys innate urge to create comes the sun&#39;s life-supporting power, giving to silence the ability to act." Architectural historian Vincent Scully said of the church, "You can really feel the silence he talked about, thrumming as with the presence of divinity, when the cinder block is washed silver by the light that floods down upon it, while the heavy, heavy slab is lifted overhead."</p><br>
<p>In the classrooms, bench seats with small side windows are placed in projections of the outer walls. These spaces create the impression of little rooms carved from the outer walls, and, according to Robert McCarter, they continue Kahn&#39;s architectural theme of the classrooms themselves appearing as rooms imbedded within thick, castle-like walls.</p><br>
<p>In the 1969 addition, the rectangular gallery on the first floor is designed so that it can be used either as an extension of the lobby or separated into smaller rooms by massive doors. Church offices are located on both sides of the gallery. The second floor has a loose arrangement of spaces that can be combined into a large room or used separately. The two main floors of the addition have fireplaces at the end nearest the sanctuary and large windows at the far end that reveal the natural world outside.</p><br>
<h3>Monumentality and authenticity</h3><br>
<p>Sarah Williams Goldhagen, author of Louis Kahns Situated Modernism, says that Kahn was troubled by the socially corrosive aspects of modern society. He believed, in her words, that "architecture must foster peoples ethical formation. People who are anchored in their community, morally obligated and psychologically connected to the people surrounding them, make for better citizens." Because his social agenda was compatible with Unitarian ideals, he was in a good position to manifest his vision of community in architectural form at the Rochester church. According to Goldhagen, Kahn used two architectural approaches to situate his buildings&#39; users both in society and in themselves. One is monumentality, which anchors people socially and promotes a feeling of community. The other is authenticity, which fosters self-awareness and promotes individual responsibility.</p><br>
<p>Kahn&#39;s first major essay as sole author, published in 1944, was called "Monumentality," a concept he defined as "a spiritual quality inherent in a structure which conveys the feeling of its eternity". Sonit Bafna says that in the early 1950s Kahn "had begun to develop a distinctive approach to architecture. An overriding concern for him from this period on was to instill a sense of permanence into his buildings, so that his work could match the dignity and poise of the ruins he had seen in Italy and southern Europe." Goldhagen says that Kahn used monumentality to strengthen the sense of community among those who used his buildings: the massiveness of a Kahn building instills the feeling that both the building and the institution it houses will last for a very long time. At First Unitarian, says Goldhagen, the column-like rhythms of light that Kahn sculpted across the facade are among the devices that increase the impression of massiveness and give the building an air of monumentality.</p><br>
<p>Secondly, according to Goldhagen, Kahn strove for "an architecture of authenticity." Authenticity is a concept popularized by the existentialist writer Jean-Paul Sartre, who, in Goldhagens words, believed that "To live authentically, one has to strive for a heightened awareness not only of oneself but also of ones place in a specific historical moment and place. This requires acute perception of ones social and physical environment, which is difficult because a person tends to apprehend the objects and buildings that surround her as instruments". Authenticity encourages people to focus "not on the instrumentality of the everyday world but rather on an objects shape, texture, and materiality." In contrast to other modern architects like Mies van der Rohe, Kahn shunned "the diaphanous and the transparent so that he could press the viewer up against materiality, substance and weight." Goldhagen notes that "It is all but impossible to enter one of Kahn&#39;s buildings and not to notice it, not to inspect it or look intently at it." Kahn strove for an aesthetic of authenticity at First Unitarian, says Goldhagen, by designing with a blunt honesty of materials and by laying bare the process of construction. Kahn said, "I believe in frank architecture. A building is a struggle, not a miracle, and the architect should acknowledge this."</p><br>
<p>Kahn had partially achieved these two aspirations in earlier works, according to Goldhagen. The Yale University Art Gallery, for example, with its emphasis on process over finish, promotes authenticity, situating people in themselves, while the Richards Medical Research Laboratories were designed to reinforce group cooperation. Goldhagen says that it was with First Unitarian that Kahn first succeeded in situating his building&#39;s users both in themselves and in society, an agenda that he was later able to develop more fully at the Salk Institute and National Assembly Complex in Dhaka, Bangladesh, which had much larger budgets.</p><br>
<h3>Importance to Kahn's career</h3><br>
<p>According to Goldhagen, the First Unitarian Church of Rochester was "the first building Kahn built that gave an indication of his mature style". Vincent Scully, in his Modern Architecture and Other Essays, similarly says "the experience of designing the church at Rochester seems to have brought Kahn to a confident maturity and confirmed him in his method of design."</p><br>
<p>Kahn worked primarily for institutions that advanced the public good, including schools, museums, research institutes, government bodies, and religious organizations. Goldhagen says that at First Unitarian Kahn developed a philosophy for creating architecture for such organizations: "Kahns philosophy of the architecture of institutions, developed while designing the First Unitarian Church in Rochester, stipulated that the architects first and highest duty was to develop an idealized vision of an institutions way of life&#39; and then to give that vision form—or, as he would have put it, Form."</p><br>
<p>Robin B. Williams, writing in Louis I. Kahn: In the Realm of Architecture, says the design approach that Kahn followed at First Unitarian, particularly the introduction of his Form drawing, was important to the development of his process for transforming an intangible architectural idea into an actual building:</p><br>
<p>Kahn made his enthusiasm for the First Unitarian Church evident even before it received final approval from the building committee. As early as October 1960, in a lecture in California, he had chosen it to illustrate a pair of terms—"form" and "design"—that were becoming key tenets of his philosophy. He used these words to describe his conception of architecture—and in particular his design procedure—as the translation of the intangible into the real. It was at this time that Kahn mythologized the way the design of the church had evolved, composing an account (accompanied by the now-famous diagram) that, since its publication in April 1961, has been seen as the clearest illustration of his design approach.</p><br>
<p>Kahn worked on this lecture for several months and published it as an essay called Form and Design. A colleague described it as the best embodiment of his ideas at that time and said that when people requested examples of Kahn&#39;s publications, he most often sent this essay.</p><br>
<h3>Recognition</h3><br>
<p>Paul Goldberger, Pulitzer-Prize-winning architectural critic for the New York Times, described the First Unitarian Church of Rochester in 1982 as one of "the greatest religious structures of the century" along with Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France, by Le Corbusier; Unity Temple in Oak Park, Illinois, by Frank Lloyd Wright; and the Christian Science Church in Berkley, California, by Bernard Maybeck.</p><br>
<p>The First Unitarian Church of Rochester is used as a case study in Artists Work/Artists Voice: Louis I. Kahn, an educator&#39;s guide developed by the Museum of Modern Art to introduce students to architecture.</p><br>
<p>The First Unitarian Church of Rochester was officially listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 2, 2014.</p><br>
<p>San Bernardino Pass  is a high mountain pass in the Swiss Alps connecting the Hinterrhein and the Mesolcina  valleys between Thusis  and Bellinzona . Located in the far eastern side of the Western Alps it is not to be confused with the Great St Bernard Pass and the Little St Bernard Pass. The top of the pass represents both the Italo-German language frontier and the watershed  between the Po basin and the Rhine basin.</p><br>
<p>The route first became important as a mule track in the fifteenth century when the route between Thusis and Splügen was known as the Via Mala. A road for wheeled vehicles was opened in 1770; this road was significantly improved between 1821 and 1823, financed in part by the Kingdom of Sardinia, keen to improve a trade route connecting Genoa and Piedmont to the Graubünden that was not directly controlled by Austria.</p><br>
<p>Traffic flow was much facilitated when in 1967, the San Bernardino road tunnel was completed, since then vehicle traffic on the pass has been reduced, benefiting those taking the time to avoid the tunnel. The pass road is only open in summer.</p><br>
<p>The pass is featured in an episode of the BBC television show Top Gear in which the three presenters try to find the best driving road in the world.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The average climatic conditions for San Bernardino village at the entry point to the San Bernardino tunnel at 1,639 m are given in the following chart.</p><br>
<p>The River Doon  is a river in Ayrshire, Scotland. The river flows 23 miles from Loch Doon, joining the Firth of Clyde just south of Ayr. Its course is generally north-westerly, passing near to the town of Dalmellington, and through the villages of Patna, Dalrymple, and Alloway, birthplace of Robert Burns. The source of the Doon is Loch Enoch, high in the Galloway Hills.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s the Loch Doon was dammed to provide water to the Galloway Hydro Electric Scheme, today operated by Scottish Power.</p><br>
<p>The Doon is mentioned in Burns&#39; classic narrative poem "Tam o&#39; Shanter", along with the Brig o&#39; Doon, which spans across the river, just outside Alloway. The river is also the major setting for his lesser-known poem "The Banks O&#39; Doon".</p><br>
<p>Ynys Benlas is a small islet situated in the Inland Sea  between Anglesey and Holy Island. It measures approximately 65 metres  by 35 metres  at low tide and covers about 0.2 hectares.</p><br>
<p>Its name translates from the Welsh for "blue top island", which is thought to derive from the fact that bluebells apparently flourished on it. Late nineteenth century Ordnance survey maps refer to the islet as Ynys Henlas, which translates as "old blue island"</p><br>
<p>According to the Archaeological Journal (1844), the islet (referred to as Ben Las in the Journal), may have been an ancient signal hill.</p><br>
<p>This islet is not to be confused with Ynys Benlas in the Menai Strait near Church Island, nor with Ynys-las near RAF Valley.</p><br>
<p>Santa Monica Civic Auditorium is a multi-purpose convention center at 1855 Main Street in Santa Monica, California, owned by the City of Santa Monica. It was built in 1958 and designed by Welton Becket.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building was made of reinforced concrete and combined elements of a theater, concert hall, and trade show and convention auditorium. Parabolic pylons supported the exterior grand cantilevered canopy fronting a glass curtain wall and brise soleil, a patterned wall that reduced the effects of the sun&#39;s glare.</p><br>
<p>For trade shows, the Civic Auditorium features 11,775 ft2, while the stage adds 4,485 ft2 more space, for a total of 16,260 ft2. The East Wing meeting room adds an additional 4,200 ft2, while the main lobby features 6,708 ft2.</p><br>
<p>The main hall of the Civic is adaptable for not only trade shows, but also sporting events, concerts, meetings, awards shows and other events. As a concert venue it can seat 3,000, as a banquet hall 720 in tables, and as a sports arena it can seat up to 2,500. The most widely touted innovation was the auditorium&#39;s main floor, which in a matter of seconds could be tilted by a hydraulic mechanism to form raked seating for theatrical productions or a flat surface for dancing or exhibits. The main floor of the auditorium can thus be raised or lowered to create a raked floor for theatre seating or a level floor for exhibits.</p><br>
<p>The parcel includes the auditorium and surrounding land bounded on the north by the county building, on the west by Main Street, on the east by 4th Street and on the south by Pico Boulevard.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Santa Monica Civic Auditorium opened in the summer of 1958. At that time, it was the second-largest auditorium in the Los Angeles area.</p><br>
<p>The $2.9-million city-owned project soon became an acclaimed music venue, for artists as varied as David Bowie, Eric Clapton, Frank Sinatra, Village People, Dave Brubeck, Laura Nyro, The Limeliters, Ella Fitzgerald, Free, Traffic, Prince, Tim Buckley and Bob Dylan. On 28th and 29th October, 1964, the auditorium was host to the T.A.M.I. Show, a filmed concert featuring James Brown and The Rolling Stones. A home of the Academy Awards from 1961-1967, the auditorium remains home to the Santa Monica Symphony Orchestra. Pink Floyd performed there on 1st May, 1970.</p><br>
<p>George Carlins album Class Clown was recorded at the auditorium on May 27, 1972, and was released later that year on September 29. Carlin first performed his infamous monologue "Seven Words You Can Never Say on Television" at the shows finale. On July 21, 1972, Carlin was arrested and charged with violating obscenity laws after performing the routine at Summerfest.</p><br>
<p>The Eagles performed three consecutive shows during The Long Run Tour on July 27–29, 1980. The show was recorded and mostly featured on their live album, entitled Eagles Live. Blue Öyster Cult played in support of its Club Ninja album in March 1986; the show was recorded for radio broadcast, and several songs from the legendary performance were finally made available as part of a box set in 2012, including the never-before released "Wings Of Mercury."</p><br>
<p>On April 9, 1982, "Weird Al" Yankovic made his first major appearance at the auditorium, when his band opened for Missing Persons. It was not a happy experience; "I got pelted for 45 minutes," he later said, "(with) anything that wasn&#39;t nailed down."</p><br>
<p>In 1986, the Santa Monica City Council discussed a preliminary report containing four plans calling for various combinations of office buildings, a hotel, a museum, a conference center, a playhouse, parking garages and open space and, in two of the plans, demolition of the auditorium. By the 2000s, the Civic Auditorium was operating at an annual deficit of as much as $2 million, which the city has had to cover. The City of Santa Monica began to plan for a $51.9-million renovation using redevelopment funds and negotiated with the Nederlander Organization to book events. That effort was suspended after Governor Jerry Brown dissolved community redevelopment agencies. Per the Santa Monica Mirror newspaper, the auditorium is expected to close in July 2013 for at least five years. It needs at least $23 million in seismic and accessibly upgrades. A complete renovation would exceed $50 million. From an economic perspective, it would be cheaper to replace it, but many consider it a Landmark worth preserving. The City of Santa Monica has an annual budget of more than half of a billion dollars and is considering its priorities.</p><br>
<p>"As of 2016 the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium is currently available for limited filming, photo shoots, private events, and meetings" (SMGOV.net 2016).</p><br>
<p>The Civic Auditorium parking lot is also used for shows like the AltCar Expo Conference that took place in September 2016. The AltCar Expo features hi-tech electric vehicles equipped with latest technology.</p><br>
<p>Wetterhorn Peak  is a fourteen thousand foot mountain peak in the USA state of Colorado. It is located in the Uncompahgre Wilderness of the northern San Juan Mountains, in northwestern Hinsdale County and southeastern Ouray County, 9 mi east of the town of Ouray. It lies 2.75 mi west of Uncompahgre Peak.</p><br>
<p>Wetterhorn Peak, and its neighbor Matterhorn Peak, 13,590 ft, are named after the Wetterhorn and the Matterhorn, two famous peaks in the Swiss Alps. Both Colorado peaks are pointed rock spires (hence resembling their namesake peaks), whose shapes contrast with the broad bulk of the higher Uncompahgre Peak.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded ascent of the peak was made in 1906 by George Barnard, C. Smedley, W. P. Smedley, and D. Utter, but a previous ascent by miners working in the area in the 19th century is likely.</p><br>
<p>The standard, and only common, route on Wetterhorn Peak is the southeast ridge, which is accessed via the Matterhorn Creek drainage on the south side of the mountain. The trailhead is on the Henson Creek Road, accessible from Lake City. The route involves 3,535 ft of ascent from the trailhead and some exposed scrambling (Class 3/4) on the ridge itself. The nearby east face is considered a high-quality advanced snow climb or extreme ski descent.</p><br>
<p>The Nevljica is a river in the Municipality of Kamnik, Slovenia. It comes out below Kozjak Hill  and flows through the Tuhinj Valley. It also flows through the settlements of Nevlje and Mekinje. It is a left tributary of the Kamnik Bistrica.</p><br>
<h2>Bridges</h2><br>
<p>There are two notable bridges over Nevljica:</p><br>
<p>* The Mammoth Bridge (Mamutov most) in Nevlje.</p><br>
<p>* The bridge over the Nevljica in Mekinje, built between 1952 and 1955. Its location was chosen by Jože Plečnik, and its detailed plans were drawn up by his assistant Anton Bitenc based on Plečnik&#39;s plans.</p><br>
<h2>1938 findings</h2><br>
<p>In January 1938, due to erosion and frequent flooding, the administration of the Drava Banovina started to regulate the bed of the river. In addition, a bridge was to be built. On 14 March 1938, workers at the site found objects that were later shown to be an almost complete skeleton of a woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius). An Upper Paleolithic archeological site was established in Nevlje. Remains of other animals as well as a human tool were found, and it was shown that around 22,000 years ago there was a human hunting settlement in the area. The skeleton gave its name to the bridge over the river in Nevlje.</p><br>
<p>Mount Sneffels is the highest summit of the Sneffels Range in the Rocky Mountains of North America. The prominent 4,315.4 m fourteener is located in the Mount Sneffels Wilderness of Uncompahgre National Forest, 10.8 km west by south  of the City of Ouray in Ouray County, Colorado, United States. The summit of Mount Sneffels is the highest point in Ouray County.</p><br>
<h2>Mountain</h2><br>
<p>Mount Sneffels is notable for its great vertical relief, as it rises 7,200 feet above the town of Ridgway, Colorado 6 miles to the northeast.</p><br>
<p>The primary route to the summit follows a creek bed up from Yankee Boy Basin. A secondary route follows a ridge line to the summit from the saddle of Blue Lakes Pass.</p><br>
<p>Mount Sneffels was named after the volcano Snæfell, which is located on the tip of the Snæfellsnes peninsula in Iceland. That mountain and its glacier, Snæfellsjökull, which caps the crater like a convex lens, were featured in the Jules Verne novel A Journey to the Center of the Earth. An area on the western flank of Mount Sneffels gives the appearance of volcanic crater.</p><br>
<p>Seen from the Dallas Divide on State Highway 62, Mount Sneffels is one of the most photographed mountains in Colorado.</p><br>
<h2>Historical names</h2><br>
<p>Mount Blaine</p><br>
<p>Mount Sneffels – 1906</p><br>
<p>Sneffels Peak</p><br>
<p>Cedar Creek Lake is a 784 acre reservoir in eastern Lincoln County, Kentucky, USA, between Stanford and Crab Orchard along USA Highway 150. Cedar Creek Lake is the second largest state-controlled lake in Kentucky.</p><br>
<h2>Project history and information</h2><br>
<p>"This project, first conceived in 1989, will soon result in a recreational and economic jewel for Lincoln County and this region," as said by Kentucky ex-Governor Paul E. Patton during the September 4, 2002, Cedar Creek Dam dedication. Cedar Creek Lake was a joint venture of the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife (KDFW), Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KYTC), and the leaders of Lincoln County—most importantly ex-Judge-Executive John Sims who envisioned the project. On February 16, 2003, due to excessive amounts of rain, the lake was filled sooner than predicted. This impounded 784 acre of the 14,000 acre Cedar Creek watershed, making Cedar Creek Lake the second largest state-controlled lake in Kentucky (with Lake Malone being the largest).</p><br>
<p>During the preparations for Cedar Creek Lake, it was decided to leave all trees and brush to provide a habitat for the future lakes many species of fish. In areas without trees and brush, cement-filled buckets with arrays of 5 ft wooden sticks protruding out, packaging tarps, anchored downed trees, and other various fish habitat improvement structures were placed to fill in these bald areas. Any developments such as houses and certain sections of old US 150 were removed (except for the old US 150 bridge crossing Cedar Creek). The Hebron Methodist Church, the Vardeman/Holmes/Daws/Stephenson Family Cemetery, and a small section of Kentucky Route 1770 were relocated before the lakes impoundment.</p><br>
<p>Cedar Creek Lake was included as part of the planning for the reconstruction of the 7.2 mi section of USA Highway 150 (designated the John Sims Highway) between Stanford and Crab Orchard by the KYTC. The construction of the earth-fill dam was at a cost of $4 million USD. Of the $4 million, the KYTC paid $3.5 million and Lincoln County paid $0.5 million. The Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife paid for the purchase of the 1,600 acre of land needed for the lake at the cost of $4.1 million and paid $300,000 for the lake&#39;s three boat ramps, parking facilities, and courtesy docks. Total cost of the project was nearly $8.5 million.</p><br>
<p>Future developments around Cedar Creek Lake will include a marina and a public beach (no completion date is known at this time).</p><br>
<h2>Lake statistics</h2><br>
<p>Watershed: 14,000 acre, primarily agricultural: 45% pastureland, 35% woodland, and 19% cropland.</p><br>
<p>Cedar Creek Lake features a larger than usual 300 ft buffer zone to prevent private land encroachment problems.</p><br>
<h2>Lake facilities</h2><br>
<h3>Boat ramps</h3><br>
<p>John Sims Boat Ramp: The main boat ramp of Cedar Creek Lake located where the old Boone Rd becomes submerged. This boat ramp is named after John Sims, a previous Lincoln County Judge-Executive who helped start the Cedar Creek Lake project.</p><br>
<p>Old US 150 Boat Ramp: Located at the end of the old US 150 on the west side of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Cowan Road Boat Ramp: Located where Cowan Road becomes submerged off Kentucky Route 1770.</p><br>
<h3>Bank access</h3><br>
<p>A bank access is located off the small relocated section of Kentucky Route 1770.</p><br>
<h3>Future facilities</h3><br>
<p>Marina: Currently in the planning phases and will be built by Lincoln County.</p><br>
<p>Public Beach: Currently under construction by Lincoln County.</p><br>
<h2>Stock of fish</h2><br>
<p>Cedar Creek Lake is inhabited by the following species of fish:</p><br>
<p>Bluegill</p><br>
<p>Black crappie</p><br>
<p>Channel catfish</p><br>
<p>Largemouth bass</p><br>
<p>Redear sunfish</p><br>
<p>The Yun Range  are a mountain range running north-south in northwestern Yunnan province, China. They were formerly romanized as the Yun Ling and tautologically as the Yun-ling Mountains. The Yun Range runs between the Lancang River  to the west and Jinsha River  to the east. The range is a major component of the greater Hengduan Mountains.</p><br>
<p>In historic times, the Yun Ling referred more broadly to all mountains south and west of the Sichuan Basin. At times, the name was applied to the Min Mountains, Qionglai Mountains, Daxue Mountains and other ranges in the Hengduan Mountains. In this context the province of Yunnan, meaning "south of cloud mountains", was named after the Yun Range.</p><br>
<p>The Yunling Mountains Nature Reserve in Lanping County in Nujiang Prefecture is part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas and a habitat for the endangered black snub-nosed monkey.</p><br>
<p>The Zillertal  is a valley in Tyrol, Austria that is drained by the Ziller river. It is the widest valley south of the Inntal  and lends its name to the Zillertal Alps, the strongly glaciated section of the Alps in which it lies. The Tux Alps lie to its west, while the lower grass peaks of the Kitzbühel Alps are found to the east.</p><br>
<p>The Zillertal is one of the valley areas in Tyrol most visited by tourists. Its largest settlement is Mayrhofen.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Zillertal branches from the Inn trench near Jenbach, about 40 km northeast of Innsbruck, running mostly in a north-south direction. The Zillertal proper stretches from the village of Strass to Mayrhofen, where it separates into four smaller valleys, the Tux valley and the sparsely settled, so-called Gründe – Zamsergrund, Zillergrund and Stilluppgrund. Along the way, two more Gründe and the Gerlos valley, which leads to the Gerlos Pass and into Salzburg, branch off.</p><br>
<p>Unlike other side valleys of the Inntal, the Zillertal rises constantly, but only marginally, from one end to the other – only about 100 m over 30 km. Permanent settlements cover about 9% of the entire area of the Zillertal municipalities.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Near the Tuxer Joch, a pass between the Wipptal and the Tux valley, there have been archeological finds from middle Stone Age. The oldest remains of settlements in the Zillertal date back to the Illyrians during the late Bronze and early Iron Ages – a tribe from the Balkan Peninsula who were absorbed by the Bavarians (Baiuvarii).</p><br>
<p>The earliest written record of the Zillertal dates from 889, when Arnulf of Carinthia granted land to the Archbishop of Salzburg in the "Cilarestal". Ownership of the valley was divided along the river Ziller. Even today this division is visible, as churches on the right bank of the river generally have green towers and belong to Salzburg Diocese, while churches on the left bank have red towers and belong to Innsbruck Diocese.</p><br>
<p>In 1248, the land west of the Ziller was acquired by the Counts of Tyrol, while the lands east of the Ziller pledged as security to the Counts of Tyrol by the Lords of Rattenberg from 1290 to 1380. In 1504, with both the County of Tyrol and the Archbishopric of Salzburg dominated by the Habsburgs, the Zillertal valley was united under Emperor Maximilian and put under joint Tyrolean/Salzburgian rule.</p><br>
<p>In 1805, the Treaty of Pressburg ended the War of the Third Coalition and forced Austria to cede Tyrol to Bavaria. For the purposes of this treaty, the Zillertal was considered part of Salzburg and thus remained with Austria. The people of the Zillertal nevertheless joined Andreas Hofer&#39;s Tyrolean Insurrection of 1809 in the Battle of the Ziller Bridge (14 May). Later that year, the insurrection was defeated and the Zillertal briefly became Bavarian until the Congress of Vienna in 1814/1815.</p><br>
<p>While the relatively lenient stance of the archbishops of Salzburg had allowed the creation of small pockets of Protestantism in their lands since the Protestant Reformation, the remaining Protestants were oppressed more harshly during the Habsburg rule of the 19th century. In 1837, 437 Protestant inhabitants of the Zillertal left the valley after they were given the choice of renouncing the Augsburg Confession or emigrating to Silesia, where Frederick William III of Prussia offered them lands and housing near Erdmannsdorf (now Mysłakowice in western Poland).</p><br>
<p>In 1902, the Zillertal Railway was constructed, which still runs between Jenbach and Mayrhofen to this day, opening up the valley, the economy of which had previously relied mostly on agriculture and mining, to commerce and tourism. From 1921 to 1976, magnesium carbonate (and later tungsten) were mined around the Alpine pastures of the Schrofen and Wangl Almen above the Tuxertal A ropeway conveyor of more than 9 km length was used to transport the ore to the Zillertal Railway goods station in the valley below.</p><br>
<p>The Zillertal was known for its itinerant tradesmen, "farm doctors" and singing families. In the second half of the 19th century refuge huts were erected and trails established as climbing became a mass sport. The development of the area for tourism began in 1953/1954 with the construction of the Gerlosstein ski region, today the Zillertal Arena, which was soon followed by other lifts and the opening of the Mayrhofner Penkenbahn in 1954. The use of water power took off in the 1970s.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>In the second half of the 20th century, after the end of mining in the valley, tourism became the area&#39;s dominant economic activity. In 2003, tourists stayed a total of 6 million nights in the valley, mostly during winter sports holidays. Following a phase of mergers by building connecting lifts during the 1990s and early 2000s, there are now four big ski areas and three smaller satellite areas in the valley, with a combined total of more than 170 lifts and more than 630 km of downhill slopes.</p><br>
<p>Traditional agriculture – mostly cattle, dairy and some sheep farming on the Alm pastures – is still widespread and the large sawmill outside the village of Fügen is a sign of the lumber industry that also plays a significant role. The periphery of the area is home to a number of factories. Four large reservoirs in the Gründe supply water to a total of eight hydroelectric power stations, generating slightly more than 1,200 GWh per year.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>The Zillertal is particularly renowned for its musical tradition. For instance, several families of travelling singers and organ builders from the valley have been credited with spreading the Christmas carol Silent Night across the world during the 19th and early 20th centuries. More recently, the Schürzenjäger band have had tremendous success in German-speaking countries with their crossover mix of Volksmusik and pop.</p><br>
<p>Pusch Ridge is the most prominent feature in the Pusch Ridge Wilderness Area of the Santa Catalina Mountains, managed by the Coronado National Forest north of Tucson, Arizona, in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Pusch Ridge was named after pioneer George Pusch (1847–1921), who came to Arizona from Germany in the 1870s, and established the Steam Pump Ranch on the Cañada del Oro near the base of the ridge in 1874 in what is now the town of Oro Valley. Steam Pump Ranch was one of the largest cattle ranches in the Territory of Arizona. George Pusch also served as a state legislator and one of the delegates to the original Arizona Constitutional Convention in 1910.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>Pusch Ridge is primarily made up of three distinct peaks, including (from southwest to northeast in orientation) Pusch Peak, Bighorn Mountain, and Table Mountain. Pusch Peak is the westernmost point in the Santa Catalina Mountains, and rises in elevation over 2,000 ft to a peak elevation of 5,366 ft. Bighorn Mountain rises to an elevation about 5,662 ft at the summit. Table Mountain rises in elevation to 6,265 ft. A minor peak, known as The Cleaver, is located between Pusch Peak and Bighorn Mountain, rising to a summit of about 4,912 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife/Environment</h2><br>
<p>Pusch Ridge was home to one of the last populations of Desert Bighorn Sheep in Arizona, none have been observed since 2005. In a controversial effort to re-establish the Bighorn Sheep population, on November 18, 2013 thirty-one Bighorns were released by Arizona Game and Fish officers near Pusch Ridge, the first in a series of three planned releases totaling about 100 animals over the next two years. Pusch Ridge is noted for dramatic ridges, deep canyons, and extensive biodiversity in elevation changes. Pusch Ridge also provides sweeping views of Oro Valley to the west, and Tucson to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Trailhead</h2><br>
<p>The Pusch Ridge Trailhead is located within the town of Oro Valley, accessed from East Linda Vista Boulevard just east of North Oracle Road (State Route 77) (formerly USA 89), six miles north of Tucson. Restrictions on hiking Pusch Ridge apply during certain times due to the potential impact on the breeding activities of the Bighorn Sheep in the area.</p><br>
<p>Old South Church in Boston, Massachusetts,  is a historic United Church of Christ congregation first organized in 1669. Its present building was designed in the Gothic Revival style by Charles Amos Cummings and Willard T. Sears, completed in 1873, and amplified by the architects Allen & Collens between 1935–1937. The church, which was built on newly filled land in the Back Bay section of Boston, is located at 645 Boylston Street on Copley Square. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 for its architectural significance as one of the finest High Victorian Gothic churches in New England. It is home to one of the older religious communities in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>History of the congregation</h2><br>
<p>Established in 1669, Old South Church is one of the older religious communities in the United States. It was organized by Congregationalist dissenters from Bostons First Church and was known as the Third Church (to distinguish it from the First and Second Congregational Churches in the city). The Third Churchs congregation met first in their Cedar Meeting House (1670), then at the Old South Meeting House (1729) at the corner of Washington and Milk Streets in Boston.</p><br>
<p>Members of the congregation have included Samuel Adams, William Dawes, Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Sewall, and Phillis Wheatley. In 1773, Samuel Adams gave the signals from the Old South Meeting House for the "war whoops" that started the Boston Tea Party.</p><br>
<p>During the Unitarian Movement of the early 19th century, Old South was the sole Congregational Church in Boston to adhere to the doctrine of Trinitarianism. In 1816 Old South Church joined with Park Street Church to form the City Mission Society, a social justice society to serve Boston&#39;s urban poor. During the American Civil War, Old South became a recruiting center for the Union Army under minister Jacob Manning. Though the congregation was not entirely abolitionist, it strongly supported the Union cause. The conclusion of the Civil War was followed by an expansive time of increased inclusion for the congregation. Under minister George Angier Gordon the congregation moved from its meeting house at Washington Street to its Back Bay location in 1875, occupying the present church constructed on newly filled land.</p><br>
<p>Old South&#39;s commitment to urban ministry and care continued on into the 20th century becoming a segue for the inclusion of new members increasingly diverse by race, class, and sexual orientation. The congregation has formally adopted a platform of equality, social justice, and peace.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The church building was designed between 1870 and 1872 by the Boston architectural firm of Cummings and Sears in the Venetian Gothic style. The style follows the precepts of the British cultural theorist and architectural critic John Ruskin (1819–1900) as outlined in his treatise The Stones of Venice. Old South Church in Boston remains one of the most significant examples of Ruskin&#39;s influence on American architecture. The architects, Charles Amos Cummings and Willard T. Sears, also designed the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. The exterior of the church is primarily built of Roxbury Conglomerate commonly called puddingstone. Many arches, and several walls of stone are striped with alternating courses of yellow-beige and deep red sandstone. The porticos and large open arches in the campanile are decorated with simple plate tracery. The upper arches of the porticos are decorated with screens of ornate wrought iron. The building is roofed in alternating bands of red and dark gray slate and the roofline finished with ornamental iron cresting.</p><br>
<h3>Campanile</h3><br>
<p>A tall tower, or campanile is the trademark feature of Old South and is visible from several Boston neighborhoods. The tower, on the western end of the church, rises to a height of 246 and houses the churchs 2020 pound bell. This is the second campanile built on the same site, designed by Allen & Collens it is similar to the 1875 design in its use of Moorish arches. The first tower, completed in 1875 along with the present Narthex and sanctuary, had begun to list by the late 1920s. The cause was determined to be the faulty footings and piles anchored in the soft former swampland. They were insufficient for the load of the tower. The congregation engaged the architectural firm of Allen & Collens to design a replacement campanile and a new chapel to be named in memory of the Reverend George Angier Gordon. The tower was dismantled, and early 1930s technology of steam shovel and steel pilings provided a lasting solution. Today, the pitch and height of the tower are tested annually and records attest to its enduring stability. The bell wheel, which by motion of a heavy rope swings the large bell, had deteriorated by the late 20th century requiring that the bell be rung by an external hammer. A faithful reconstruction of the original 1931 bell wheel, installed in early fall 2006, returned Old South&#39;s bell to "full swing."</p><br>
<h3>Lantern</h3><br>
<p>Centered above the Sanctuary on the east side of the church is a copper clad cupola surrounded by twelve ornate gothic arched windows. This feature is reminiscent of the cupolas of the Basilica of St. Mark in Venice. While the lantern provides a striking visual presence it was also built with function in mind. In the days before mechanical fans and air conditioning a series of mechanically operated louvers allowed for window panels to be opened to help cool the sanctuary inside.</p><br>
<h2>Decorative arts</h2><br>
<p>The interior of Old South is exuberant yet quietly modulates the mix of rich materials: highly carved Italian cherry woodwork, limestone, stenciled plaster, and stained glass. The sanctuary is entered from the narthex through a screen carved in the Venetian Gothic style from French Caen limestone. Hidden among the carved foliage that decorates the screen can be found a squirrel, lizard, owl, and snail. A similar theme of animals is also found in the carving of the buildings exterior. The interior of the chancel at the east end of the church, behind the choir, is faced by a running screen of wooden arches with quatrefoil lunettes adapted from the upper arcade of the Doges Palace in Venice. The stained glass windows are by the English stained glass manufacturers Clayton and Bell and were produced in the style of 15th-century English glass.</p><br>
<h3>1875 Cummings and Sears interior</h3><br>
<p>When Old Souths church opened in 1875 it looked very much as it does today, based upon the design of Cummings and Sears. The walls were decorated in polychrome stenciling in shades of complex tertiary colors: a rose madder background with overlays of ochre, bay leaf green, warm gray, and persimmon, and highlights of metallic gold. Most of the interior structure, except for the carved wood frieze along the balconies, was already in place by 1875. High above the crossing of the transepts and nave is the lantern, or cupola. The ceiling of the lantern was painted a deep Prussian blue with a pattern of gilded stars to represent the firmament of God. The limestone tracery of the west wall of the sanctuary, with its foliage and animals, combined with the highly carved foliated woodwork and the overhead representation of the nighttime sky was intended to echo Gods creation. Above the doors on the east chancel walls are glass mosaics of the tree of life by Antonio Salviati. A third mosaic by Salviati originally hung in the tympanum above the towers front doors. That mosaic was relocated to the vestibule when the tower was rebuilt 1922-1937. The combined effect was extremely rich; at once a spiritual and sensuous experience, and in great contrast to the chaste interior of Old South Meeting House on Washington Street. Stylistically the 1875 interior was in harmony with the Ruskinian Gothic exterior, and expressed Ruskins ideal that it is “in art that the heart, the head, and the hand of a man come together.”</p><br>
<h3>1905 Tiffany interior</h3><br>
<p>In 1905 the congregation engaged Louis Comfort Tiffany to redecorate the sanctuary. Tiffany headed a group of artisans called the Associated Artists who worked largely in a style now described as the Aesthetic Movement. Tiffany was a part of an emerging American view of design in the United States, increasingly taking fewer cues from Europe. Tiffany had decorated Mark Twains home in Hartford, Connecticut, the state rooms at the White House, and several Back Bay homes. In some ways Tiffany was an expected choice to redecorate Old South. He followed many of the ideas of John Ruskin; he believed in the dignity and importance of the human hand and eye in the decorative arts. Yet Tiffany arrived at Old South at a time when his gilded age style had begun a decline. A new wave of neoclassicism called Beaux-Arts, and the Colonial Revival style were replacing Victorian ornament with a simpler classicism. Theodore Roosevelts 1902 White House renovation removed all of the Tiffany influence. In Tiffanys redecoration, Old Souths stained glass windows were covered by insets of translucent tinted purple glass. The original polychrome stenciled plaster walls were painted purple, then stenciled in a series of geometric patterns with metallic silver paint intended to appear as mother of pearl inlay. Similar to Tiffanys work at Mark Twains Hartford, Connecticut home, or his design for the White House&#39;s Red Room. The resulting work at Old South was a highly ornamneted visual experience, unified by a limited color palette.</p><br>
<h3>1950s minimalism</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1950s, possibly influenced by the minimalism of the International Style, a second renovation of the Sanctuary took place. The mid-20th-century renovation largely ignored the architectural history of the church. Louis Comfort Tiffanys paint and stenciling was obscured by a coat of light gray paint, and the purple Tiffany glass installed over the stained glass was removed. The oculus of the cupola was closed up. In some ways the removal of decoration recalled the congregations Puritan roots.</p><br>
<h3>Recognition and restoration</h3><br>
<p>Old South Church&#39;s building was designated a USA National Historic Landmark in 1970.</p><br>
<p>In 1984 a research-driven restoration was begun. The period of the buildings construction was adopted, using old photographs and engravings as sources, and paint analysis to replicate original colors, the interior spaces were returned closely to their 1875 appearance. Walls were repainted rose madder and the original Cummings and Sears stencil patterns were recreated. The cupola was reopened, once more admitting light to the Sanctuary below. Polychrome stenciling repeated the original palette of ochre, bay leaf green, warm gray, and persimmon with metallic gold.</p><br>
<h2>Organ</h2><br>
<p>The church&#39;s present organ, Opus 308, was built in 1921 by E. M. Skinner & Company of Boston for the Municipal Auditorium Theater in St. Paul, Minnesota, and brought to the church in 1985 when that building was demolished. Originally 82 ranks and 5,728 pipes, it now has 115 ranks and 7,625 pipes ranging from 0.25 inches to 32 feet in length.</p><br>
<p>The organ console is located behind the pulpit and is on a hydraulic platform so that it may be raised for concerts and recessed for worship services. The organ’s pipes are located behind and to the right and left of the chancel and also at the back of the rear balcony above the entrance to the Sanctuary (32&#39; and chamade). Ten ornately painted wooden pipes are mounted at the front of each side balcony.</p><br>
<p>In December 2008, construction at the adjacent MBTA Copley station created a crack in the church&#39;s exterior and damage in the sanctuary. Out of fear that its use might cause further damage, the organ was not used from then until just before Easter in 2009.</p><br>
<h2>Bay Psalm Book</h2><br>
<p>Old South Church is the owner of one of eleven remaining first-edition copies of the Bay Psalm Book. The Bay Psalm Book, printed in 1640 by Stephen Daye, "was the first book printed in the what became the United States." Until 2013, when one copy was sold at auction to David Rubenstein, Old South Church owned two of the eleven first-edition copies. Old South Church&#39;s copy of the Bay Psalm Book is currently housed in the Rare Books Department of the Boston Public Library.</p><br>
<h2>Senior ministers</h2><br>
<p>To date twenty ministers have served Old South&#39;s congregation as Senior Minister; they are:</p><br>
<p>Thomas Thacher 1670-1678</p><br>
<p>Samuel Willard 1678-1707</p><br>
<p>Ebenezer Pemberton 1700-1717</p><br>
<p>Joseph Sewall 1713-1769</p><br>
<p>Thomas Prince 1718-1730</p><br>
<p>Thomas Prince 1730-1758</p><br>
<p>Alexander Cumming 1761-1763</p><br>
<p>Samuel Blair 1766-1769</p><br>
<p>John Hunt/John Bacon 1771-1775</p><br>
<p>Joseph Eckley 1779-1811</p><br>
<p>Joshua Huntington 1808-1819</p><br>
<p>Benjamin B. Wisner 1821-1832 (departed in 1832 to become a Corresponding Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions)</p><br>
<p>Samuel H. Stearns 1834-1836</p><br>
<p>George W. Blagden 1836-1872</p><br>
<p>Jacob M. Manning 1857-1882</p><br>
<p>George Angier Gordon 1884-1927</p><br>
<p>Russell Henry Stafford 1927-1945</p><br>
<p>Frederick M. Meek 1946-1973</p><br>
<p>James W. Crawford 1974-2002</p><br>
<p>Carl F. Schultz, Jr. 2002-2005 (Interim)</p><br>
<p>Nancy S. Taylor 2005-</p><br>
<p>Sentinel Peak is a 2,897 ft  peak in the Tucson Mountains southwest of downtown Tucson, Arizona. The valleys first inhabitants grew crops at the mountains base, along the Santa Cruz River. The name "Tucson" is derived from the Oodham Cuk Ṣon, meaning " base of the black ". In the 1910s University of Arizona students used local basalt rock to construct a 160-ft-tall block "A" on the mountains east face, near its summit, giving the peak its other name, "A" Mountain. The peak is part of a 272-acre park, the largest natural resource park in the City of Tucson.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>The fertile land at the base of Sentinel Peak was used for agriculture from circa 2000 BCE until the 1930s. Bedrock mortars found on the sides of the peak are believed to have been used to grind corn and mesquite beans into flour. In the 1690s the O&#39;odham people living in the area were visited by Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, who established the nearby Mission San Xavier del Bac. After Presidio San Augustin del Tucson was constructed in 1775, sentinels were stationed on the peak to watch for raiding Apaches.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Sentinel Peak is made up of several layers of igneous rock representing various types of volcanic activity, though the mountain itself is not a volcano. It is one of a cluster of outcroppings at the eastern edge of the Tucson Mountains that are primarily the remnants of 20-30 million-year-old (Ma) lava flows that once extended west towards the Tucson Mountains and east into the Tucson Basin, where the city is now. Erosion and faulting are responsible for the peak&#39;s conical shape.</p><br>
<p>The layer of rock at the peak of the hill is a basaltic andesite dating to 23-24 Ma. This caps a 30-36 meter-thick layer of tuff (compacted volcanic ash) above another layer of basaltic andesite, both dating to 26-28 Ma. Tuffs and andesite exposed at the base of the hill, on the south side, date to approximately 60 Ma.</p><br>
<p>Volcanic ash and breccia, along with ancient lava beds, or lahars, can be also be found on the mountain, further evidence of a once active volcanic field that formed the Tucson Mountain range.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology of "Sentinel Peak"</h2><br>
<p>On October 3, 2016, in the Arizona Daily Star newspaper, historian David Leighton explained the origin of the name Sentinel Peak:</p><br>
<p>He wrote that in the very early days of Tucson, an Indian fortification was constructed at the top of a small mountain that would come to be called Sentinel Peak---also sometimes referred to as Picket Post Butte. This Indian fortification in time became known as the sentinel station because a sentinel or guard was posted there to watch for approaching enemies, likely Apache Indians. During the USA Civil War, armed guards or soldiers were posted at the sentinel station and a canvas was stretched across the stone fortification, to keep the sun from hitting directly on the men posted there.</p><br>
<p>By 1883, remains of the fortification is what existed at that point. The remains included, "A circular wall, about 3 feet thick and made of boulders, enclosed an area about 8 feet in diameter. North of the circular structure was a small wall, roughly two feet high and about 10 feet long. To the east were traces of another, smaller circular wall."</p><br>
<p>In 1925, the remains of the fortifications still existed at the top of what by then was being called "A" Mountain although it is unknown what exactly was left at that point.</p><br>
<p>The origin of the name Sentinel Peak, according to Mr. Leighton, "comes from the sentinel station and the sentinel stationed there."</p><br>
<h2>The "A"</h2><br>
<p>After Arizona footballs 7–6 victory over Pomona in 1914, a civil engineering student on the team convinced one of his professors to make a class project of the survey and design for a huge block "A" on Sentinel Peak. Students carried the project to completion on March 4, 1916, when the 70 ft (21 m) wide, 160 ft (48 m) tall "A" was whitewashed on the east side of the peak. The basalt rock used in construction of the "A" was hauled from a quarry at the mountains base which supplied stone for many foundations and walls throughout Tucson, including the wall surrounding the University of Arizona campus.</p><br>
<p>The "A" has traditionally been painted white. On March 23, 2003, four days after the start of the Iraq War, it was painted black in protest. Two weeks later, following much public debate, the Tucson City Council resolved to have the "A" painted red, white, and blue in honor of American troops. A decade later the council decided to restore it to its traditional white. The "A" has on occasion been painted green for St. Patrick&#39;s Day.</p><br>
<p>Arizona State University has a more recently-created "A" Mountain (Tempe Butte) near the school&#39;s football stadium. During the week of the Arizona-ASU Territorial Cup game, rival fans and students have tried and at times succeeded in painting the "A" of the opposing school with their own school colors.</p><br>
<p>The Tucson Mountains  are a minor mountain range west of Tucson, Arizona. The Tucson Mountains, including Wasson Peak, are one of four notable mountain ranges surrounding the Tucson Basin. The Santa Catalina Mountains lie to the northeast, the Rincon Mountains are to the east of Tucson, and the Santa Rita Mountains lie to the south. Additionally the Sierrita Mountains lie due south, the Roskruge Mountains lie to the west across Avra Valley, the Silver Bell Mountains lie to the northwest, and the Tortolita Mountains lie to the north across the Santa Cruz Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Parks and preserves</h2><br>
<p>The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum is located on the west flank of the Tucson Mountains. Much of the range is protected by Saguaro National Park and Tucson Mountain County Park. Old Tucson Studios are located just west of the Tucson Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Tucson Mountain Park was established April 1929. The Pima County Parks Commission, with C. B. Brown as its chairman, was established to oversee the park. At approximately 20,000 acre, the park is one of the largest natural resource areas owned and managed by a local government in the USA The park has approximately 62 mi of non-motorized shared-use trails. The area is popular with hikers, mountain bikers, and equestrians.</p><br>
<p>Saguaro National Park was created as a National Monument in 1933 and later designated a national park in 1994. The Tucson Mountain District of Saguaro National Park ranges from an elevation of 2,180 ft to 4,687 ft and contains 2 biotic communities, desert scrub, and desert grassland. Average annual precipitation is approximately 10.27 in. Common wildlife include the coyote, Gambel’s quail, and desert tortoise.</p><br>
<p>According to historian David Leighton, Brown Mountain in Tucson Mountain Park, is named in honor of park founder, C.B. Brown, Kinney Road the main thoroughfare thru the park, is named for Pima County Supervisor, Jack C. Kinney who worked with Brown in the creation of the park and McCain Loop was named for J.C. McCain, the first park ranger.</p><br>
<p>The Rincon Mountains  are a significant mountain range east of Tucson, Pima County, Arizona, in the United States. The Rincon Mountains are one of five mountain ranges surrounding the Tucson valley. The other ranges include the most prominent, the Santa Catalina Mountains to the north, the Santa Rita Mountains to the south, the Tucson Mountains to the west, and the Tortolita Mountains to the northwest. Redington Pass separates the Rincon Mountains from the Santa Catalina Mountains. The Rincon Mountains are generally less rugged than the Santa Catalina Mountains and Santa Rita Mountains. The Rincon Mountains are also included in the Madrean sky island mountain ranges of southeast Arizona, extreme southwest New Mexico, and northern Sonora Mexico.</p><br>
<p>Rincón is Spanish for corner, denoting the primary shape of the mountain range. Mica Mountain (8,664 feet), the high-point of the Rincons forms the apex, with Rincon Peak (8,482 feet) forming the southern point, and Tanque Verde Peak (7,049 feet) forming the western point of the corner. The interior of the corner is Rincon Valley (south and west of Mica Mountain), primarily former ranchland currently being converted to tract housing. Colossal Cave county park, a limestone cave and popular destination, is located on the east end of the Rincon Valley, north of the community of Vail.</p><br>
<p>East of the Rincons are the Little Rincon Mountains. Between these two ranges is Happy Valley, a popular destination for locals for camping, hunting, and off-roading. Farther east is the San Pedro River of the San Pedro Valley, a holocene paleontology region.</p><br>
<p>South of the Rincon Mountains, beyond Rincon Valley is the Cienega Creek and Interstate 10.</p><br>
<p>Most of the Rincon Mountains are within Saguaro National Park, or in the Rincon Mountain Wilderness, 32&deg;14&prime;50&Prime;N latitude, 110&deg;28&prime;02&Prime;W longitude, of the Coronado National Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Trails</h2><br>
<p>The majority of the range is off-limits to motorized & bicycle travel. The mountains can be accessed on foot or horseback by the following routes:</p><br>
<p>East Side</p><br>
<p>Turkey Creek Trail</p><br>
<p>Miller Creek Trail</p><br>
<p>North Side</p><br>
<p>Italian Ranch (Italian Springs) Trail</p><br>
<p>Espiritu Creek Trail (inaccessible - dense overgrowth)</p><br>
<p>West Side</p><br>
<p>Douglas Springs Trail</p><br>
<p>Tanque Verde Ridge Trail</p><br>
<p>South Side</p><br>
<p>Madrona/Rincon Peak Trail (inaccessible - trailhead located on private land)</p><br>
<p>The Arizona Trail passes through the Rincons, entering from the north by the Italian Ranch trail, and southeast by the Miller Creek Trail</p><br>
<p>The Tortolita Mountains are a modest mountain range northwest of Tucson, Arizona, USA, at the northern boundaries of Oro Valley and Marana, two suburbs of Tucson. Peak elevation is 4,696 feet . Much of the mountain range is protected within the Tortolita Mountain Park, established in 1986 by Pima County and slated for further expansion. Public access to the Park, especially from Marana, has become contentious.</p><br>
<p>The Tortolita Mountains include extensive cultural resources. Native American peoples known as the Hohokam heavily occupied the area for approximately 700 years beginning around AD 500. In the eastern foothills of the Tortolita Mountains are ruins of Honeybee Village, a former Hohokam pueblo preserved and maintained by the Town of Oro Valley. Nearby is Honeybee Canyon, a riparian area with one of Pima County&#39;s only perennial streams, Honeybee Creek. Honeybee Canyon has been the source of conflict between environmentalists and real estate developers, beginning in the 1990s. Resorts, golf courses, and upscale homes have been developed near the canyon with significant controversy. Honeybee Canyon Park is a small developed area with restrooms, and is the trailhead for the popular Honeybee Canyon trail.</p><br>
<p>Other mountain ranges surrounding the Tucson Valley include the Santa Catalina Mountains (the area&#39;s most prominent), the Rincon Mountains, the Santa Rita Mountains, and the Tucson Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The Citadelle Laferrière or, Citadelle Henry Christophe, or simply the Citadelle , is a large mountaintop fortress in Nord, Haiti, located on top of the mountain Bonnet a L’Eveque, approximately 27 km south of the city of Cap-Haïtien, 15 km southwest of the Three Bays Protected Area, and 8 km uphill from the town of Milot. It is one of the largest fortresses in the Americas and was designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization  as a World Heritage Site in 1982—along with the nearby Sans-Souci Palace. The mountaintop fortress has itself become an icon of Haiti. The Citadel was built by Henri Christophe, a key leader during the Haitian slave rebellion , after Haiti gained independence from France at the beginning of the 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The massive stone structure was built by up to 20,000 workers between 1805 and 1820 as part of a system of fortifications designed to keep the newly independent nation of Haiti safe from French incursions. The Citadel was built several kilometres inland, and atop the 900 m Bonnet a L’Eveque mountain, to deter attacks and to provide a lookout into the nearby valleys. Cap-Haïtien and the adjoining Atlantic Ocean are visible from the roof of the fortress. Anecdotally, it is possible to sight the eastern coast of Cuba, some 140 km to the west, on clear days.</p><br>
<p>The Haitians outfitted the fortress with 365 cannons of varying size. These were obtained from various nations, and still bear the crests of 18th Century monarchs. Enormous stockpiles of cannonballs still sit in pyramidal stacks at the base of the fortress walls. Since its construction, the fortress has withstood numerous earthquakes, though a French attack never came and it was eventually abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Henri Christophe initially commissioned the fortress in 1805. At the time, Christophe was a general in the Haitian army and chief administrator of the countrys northern regions. In 1806, Alexandre Pétion launched a coup against Haitis emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Though General Christophe was aware of this through his system of spies, he did not warn Dessaline viewing his assassination as a necessary evil that would permit him to achieve his goals. Dessaliness death led to a power struggle between Christophe and Pétion, which ended with Haiti divided into northern and southern states, with the north under Christophes presidency by 1807. He declared himself king in 1811.</p><br>
<p>The Citadel was part of a system of fortifications that included Fort Jacques and Fort Alexandre, built on the mountains overlooking Cap Haitien. Dessalines ordered those forts built in 1805 to protect the new nation against French attacks.</p><br>
<p>In the event of an invasion, Christophe planned to have his military burn the valuable crops and food stocks along the coast, then retreat to the fortress, setting ambushes along the sole mountain path leading to the Citadel.</p><br>
<p>Christophe suffered a stroke in 1820, and some of his troops mutinied. Shortly afterwards, he committed suicide—according to legend, by shooting himself with a silver bullet. Loyal followers covered his body in quicklime and entombed it in one of the Citadel&#39;s interior courtyards to prevent others from mutilating the corpse.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The colossal physical dimensions of the fortress have made it a Haitian national symbol, featured on currency, stamps, and tourist ministry posters. The fortress walls rise 40 m from the mountaintop and the entire complex, including cannonball stocks but excluding the surrounding grounds, covers an area of 10,000 m&sup2;. Workers laid the large foundation stones of the fortress directly into the stone of the mountaintop, using a mortar mixture that included quicklime, molasses, and the blood of local cows and goats—and cows hooves that they cooked to a glue and added to the mix to give the mortar added strength and bonding power.</p><br>
<p>Large cisterns and storehouses in the fortresss interior were designed to store enough food and water for 5,000 defenders for up to one year. The fortress included palace quarters for the king and his family, in the event that they needed to take refuge within its walls. Other facilities included dungeons, bathing quarters, and bakery ovens. Also visible is the tomb of Christophes brother-in-law, killed when the gunpowder room he was in exploded.</p><br>
<p>The Citadels appearance from the trail leading up to its base has been likened to the prow of a great stone ship, jutting out from the mountainside. The structure is angular and assumes different geometric forms based on the viewers orientation. Some of the angles on the Citadelle were intentionally put there by Christophe to deviate cannonballs if attacked and the Epaulette is a great example of using angles to deviate and deflect shots. Though most of the fortress has no roof as such (the interior top is a latticework of stone walkways), some slanted portions are adorned with bright red tiles. The fortress has been repaired and refurbished several times since its construction, including in the 1980s with help from UNESCO and the World Monuments Fund, though little of it has been replaced and its design remains the same.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The Citadel is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Haiti. Directions to and history of the fortress are provided by self-appointed guides from the town of Milot. Near the entrance to Sans-Souci Palace, which is at the start of the trail to the Citadel, visitors may be asked to pay a small fee. Visitors are also encouraged to rent a horse for the uphill trek. The first portion of the 11 kilometre (7 mi) trail is navigable by 4WD vehicle, although infrequent landslides and construction projects sometimes make this unreliable. Numerous people live along the trail and sell souvenirs or drinks, such as fresh coconut juice, to travelers. Drinks are a necessity in the tropical heat. The trail is paved stone, generally smooth and in good condition.</p><br>
<p>About three-quarters of the way up from the parking lot, visitors must complete the final portion on horseback or on foot. The entire 11-kilometre (7 mi) trail, starting in Milot, is almost completely uphill, but can be walked by experienced hikers who carry plenty of water. Most of the interior of the Citadel fortress itself is accessible to visitors, who may also climb the numerous staircases to the fortress&#39;s roof, which is free of guardrails. On a clear day, the city of Cap-Haïtien and the Atlantic Ocean can be seen to the north. Because of its elevation the top of the Citadel is used by United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) for a Radio repeater, with an antenna on the highest point.</p><br>
<p>Though the turbulent political situation in Haiti (principally in the central region) has deterred visitors in recent years, the regions of the north and south of the country remain largely peaceful, making travel to the Citadel less challenging or hazardous than travel within the Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation and safety concerns</h2><br>
<p>After visiting the Citadel in July 2012, Haitian President Michel Martelly heavily criticized the Haitian National Institute for Historic Preservation (ISPAN) — the organization tasked with preserving Haitis cultural heritage sites — describing the site as in a state of disrepair and calling ISPANs efforts "unacceptable". His visit was intended to assess the state of the Citadel for conservation, but he refused to visit its upper levels, deeming them unsafe for visitors.</p><br>
<p>Despite Haiti&#39;s shortcomings in preserving its own cultural artifacts, international organizations have stepped in to assist, such as the Global Heritage Fund, a California-based non-profit organization, which has investigated the Citadel for monument conservation, community development, training and cultural heritage revitalization. The project would focus on both the Citadel and nearby Sans-Souci Palace, with hopes of preserving the structures as safe tourism sites to promote sustainable local economic growth.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<p>Lake Drūkšiai, also called Lake Drysviaty or Lake Drysvyaty, or Drisvyaty  is the largest of the Braslau Lakes located partly in the northeastern part of Lithuania and partly in the Vitebsk Voblast, in Belarus. The lake water was used to cool the reactors of the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant.</p><br>
<p>The greatest depth of the lake is 33.3 m, and the average depth is 7.6 m. The basin of the lake was formed during the movement of the glaciers by two perpendicular channels, which expanded north to south and west to east. The maximum depth of the first channel is 29 m, and the second one - 33.3 m. The greatest depths are located near the middle of the lake. The shallowest part is on the south ridge of the lake, its depth is approximately between 3 and 7 meters.</p><br>
<p>Six small rivers flow into the lake, and one dammed river flows out.</p><br>
<p>The Peter Hoyle House is a mid- to late-18th century two-story house in Gaston County, North Carolina, with notable German-American construction features, the main block of which reflects two, and possibly three, phases, but the exact construction dates have not been determined. A major renovation, circa 1810, added a late Georgian and Federal finish, as well as front and rear shed porches. A brick well house and a frame smoke house, both east of the house, date from the 19th century. Almost nine acres , with several large walnut trees, surround the buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Hoyle family</h2><br>
<p>In 1738 Pieter Heyl, a miller from Adenbach, Germany, his wife, Catharine, and their children arrived in America on September 11, 1738 on the Robert and Alice, originally settling in northeast Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. The Heyl family, later Anglicized to Hoyle, then lived for some time in Frederick, Maryland but by 1753 had moved to what is now Gaston County, North Carolina, then part of Anson County, North Carolina. Peter Hoyle died prior to January 20, 1761.</p><br>
<p>The exact date of construction of the house is not known, but various sources date it anywhere from 1750 to 1758. After Peters and his eldest son Jacobs deaths, which occurred within a year of each other, the land was inherited by Jacobs minor son Martin, who then transferred his interest to his uncle John. In 1794 the property went to Peter Hoyles other grandson, Andrew, who became a farmer and entrepreneur. "Rich Andrew", as he was known, may have acquired the property with the house already standing and then improved the dwelling, or he may have built the house and later upgraded it with new finishes in the early years of the 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Hoyle House stands on a hill overlooking the South Fork of the Catawba River. The house faces south toward a now overgrown dirt road; the Dallas-Stanley Highway on the north side now provides access to the property.</p><br>
<h2>Structure</h2><br>
<p>The earliest section has a foundation of small stones, still partly visible. The house&#39;s German-American hallmarks include its heavy timber frame construction with vertical braces at the corners with tightly fitted horizontal log infillings. The apparently original and complete roof structure is now covered with early 20th century tin, and much of the unusual original beaded siding, applied circa 1810 with cut nails, survives covered by weatherboard. Weathering beneath the beaded siding reveals the exterior was originally unsheathed. Some of the early windows remain, set in molded surrounds with molded sills that appear to date to 1810. The windows originally were small (about two-and-a-half feet square) and possibly filled only with shutters in the earliest period.</p><br>
<p>The first floor of the main block is a four-room plan of two larger rooms on the east side, with corner fireplaces sharing a single chimney, and two smaller west rooms. Each pair of rooms is of equal width, but the front rooms are slightly deeper. A later, second north-south partition, no longer in place, once created a center-hall plan. Today all rooms connect with adjacent rooms. The original staircase, in the southeast corner of the larger front room, enclosed with one set of winders and at least one stop outside the enclosure, was removed in the late 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The first-floor interior is carefully finished. Much of the modern sheetrock and painting have been removed to reveal early board ceilings and walnut paneled partitions and paneling on the outer walls. While some or all of the interior sheathing appears to date after 1810, all of the trim and some of the ceiling probably date to the first remodeling.</p><br>
<p>The three-room plan of the second floor consists of a large east room constituting about two-thirds the space and two small west rooms. The north-south paneled partition is similar to the partition of the first floor. This basic three-room plan probably is original, although the partition has been moved at least twice. Notches on the baseboard and patching of the wall plasters and chair rail indicate the wall was moved east, into the larger space, by about three feet. All outer walls were exposed logs until they were plastered, probably early in the 19th century. A door in the northeast corner of the large east room leads to an enclosed attic staircase; in the stairwell the structural system is clearly evident because the corner post, down braces and log infill have never been sheathed.</p><br>
<p>The two remaining outbuildings date from the early- to mid-19th century. Near the northeast corner of the main house, the well house is a one-story, rectangular common bond brick building with ventilation holes on the ends. A gabled tin roof extends beyond the west end and acts as a porch sheltering the well. The well house stands at the southeast corner, and east of the well house stands a weatherboarded smokehouse with a gabled roof sheathed in sheet metal.</p><br>
<h2>Importance</h2><br>
<p>The Peter Hoyle House is an important and, in some respects, apparently unique landmark of traditional German-American architecture in North Carolina. The unusually large, for its time, and substantial dwelling exemplifies a construction method&mdash; heavy timber frame with log infill&mdash; seen elsewhere in the mid-Atlantic Germanic settlement areas but not previously identified in North Carolina.</p><br>
<p>The date of construction, and thus the identity of the first owner of the house, cannot be conclusively determined from existing documentation, nor can the exact chronology of its development. It is not clear the house was built by 1761. With further investigation, if the Hoyle House can be firmly dated through archaeology, dendrochronology, or additional documentation, its place in the development of German-American architecture in the Piedmont can be more clearly understood.</p><br>
<p>Ferry Farm, also known as George Washington Boyhood Home Site or Ferry Farm Site, is the name of the farm and home at which George Washington spent much of his childhood. The site is located in Stafford County, Virginia, along the northern bank of the Rappahannock River, across from the city of Fredericksburg. In July 2008, archaeologists announced that they had found remains of the boyhood home, which had suffered a fire during 1740, including artifacts such as pieces of a cream-colored tea set probably belonging to George&#39;s mother, Mary Ball Washington.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The farm was named after the Washington family had left the property. Its namesake was a free ferry that crossed the Rappahannock River on Washington land—the family did not own or operate it. It is unclear what the farm was called during the Washington occupancy. Sometime in the late 19th century the farm became known as Pine Grove, as well as The Ferry Farm. The farm rose to national prominence during the Washington Birth Bicentennial of 1932—during the years surrounding this celebration some authors cited both the names Ferry Farm and Pine Grove.</p><br>
<h3>Before Washington</h3><br>
<p>Over thousands of years, American Indians periodically inhabited the lands that today make up Ferry Farm. Archaeological finds include a spear point made over 10,000 years ago by a big-game hunter, numerous tools associated with bands of hunter/gatherers, and pottery created by native farmers.</p><br>
<p>The first European claim on the property was a land patent granted to John Catlett in 1666. By 1710, the tract had been subdivided into several small farms, with Maurice Clark in ownership of what would become Ferry Farm. In 1727, the property was sold to William Strother, a lawyer and a Burgess for the newly formed King George County.</p><br>
<p>In 1738, George Washington’s father, Augustine, acquired the plantation from the Strother estate. Augustine Washington held political office, owned several thriving plantations, and was a managing partner of Accokeek Iron Furnace located six miles north of Ferry Farm on a tributary of the Potomac River. He moved to Ferry Farm in the fall of 1738 with his second wife, Mary Ball Washington, and their five young children.</p><br>
<h3>Washington-era</h3><br>
<p>George Washingtons biographers could claim three locations significant as his homesteads through his lifetime. Popes Creek, Virginia from 1732-1735 was his birthplace. Little Hunting Creek, later to be renamed Mount Vernon by elder brother Lawrence after his 1743 inheritance of the property was briefly the family home to Augustine and Mary Washington and their brood of five including his third son George, from 1735-1738. The Washington-era farm, then referred to by others as the Washington Farm and by the Washington&#39;s as the Home Farm, had a 1½-story central-passage house, two rooms deep, perched atop a bluff on the Rappahannock River. It was built by Augustine Washington. Based on excavations at the site in 2008, the structure was approximately 54 ft wide by 28 ft deep. It was the second of five houses at the site. George was six when the family moved to the farm in 1738. He inherited the farm and lived in the house until his early 20s. However, George Washington was not sentimental about the land. Washington saw the land as a "crowded, busy, trouble-filled place of limited options." Washington’s father Augustine had left behind a small set of surveying instruments after he died. At the age of 16 Washington used his father’s surveying tools to survey for prominent Virginia grandees and instantly became hooked. George Washington had found his first true calling. Surveying linked George to his brother Lawrence and the Fairfaxes. At age 18 Washington was granted a 453-acre tract in western Frederick County by Lord Fairfax. Washington surveyed the 453 acres of land and also purchased an adjoining tract. Washington soon had acquired close to two thousand acres in western lands. Washington had acquired more land through his own hard work than Ferry Farm would be worth in the three years Washington had to wait to legally claim Ferry Farm. He often stayed with his half-brother Lawrence at Mount Vernon. Washington’s mother lived in the house until 1772, when she moved to Fredericksburg, and the farm was sold to friend Hugh Mercer (direct ancestor of Gen. Geo. S. Patton Jr.). The Washington-era house was in ruinous condition by 1833.</p><br>
<h3>After Washington</h3><br>
<p>A new farmhouse was built at the site in 1850 for the use of an overseer. It was the site of skirmishing during the American Civil War in 1862. Because of these encounters, many significant battles occurred in the city surrounding Ferry Farm, although no battles occurred on the actual site.</p><br>
<p>Ferry Farm was periodically occupied by Union Soldiers as a war campground, which military personnel used to prepare for battle.</p><br>
<p>In 1862, amid the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln, familiar with Weems&#39; Washington myths, toured Ferry Farm. While occupying the Farm, many soldiers familiar with the Cherry Tree Myth, carved trinkets, such as rings, from a tree they believed to be the myth.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1920s the property has been the subject of many preservation and money making schemes. James Beverly Colbert sought to profit form the lands associations with Washington. The writer George Allan England agreed to write real-estate ads promoting the historical value of the land for a $5,000 fee upon the lands sale. He made full use of the many Weems tales. Colbert also helped promote the thought that a non-important structure called "The Surveyor Shed," was a genuine relic, though it was not. Since the bicentennial celebration of George Washingtons Birthday was approaching, Colbert and England thought the land would sell quickly, but there were other historical sites vying for preservation and the Great Depression finally killed their dream.</p><br>
<p>In each subsequent decade different groups of preservationists have tried to make a "national shrine" out of Washingtons boyhood home. The 1960s saw the creation of a home for troubled boys on the site. This project left on the landscape the sites most visible feature—a large pseudo-Georgian building which now houses a museum, offices, and archaeological lab, which, since 2006, is viewable for visitors.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s Stafford Countys Board of Supervisors set out to both preserve the site and bring business to the county. Their attempts ultimately led to rezoning and a bid by Wal-Mart to buy the property and construct a large store adjacent to the boyhood site. This was opposed by many in Fredericksburg, which would have been able to see the back of the store from town. There was widespread feeling that such a change in this historical towns view shed would have had adverse effects on the towns crucial tourist trade as well as harming the towns charm and quality of life. The result was a deal whereby Historic Kenmore (the circa 1770s Fredericksburg home of Washingtons sister Betty Washington Lewis and her husband Fielding Lewis), in conjunction with the National Park Service and commonwealth funds purchased the site. Historic Kenmore became George Washingtons Fredericksburg Foundation and in 2008 The George Washington Foundation. This foundation oversees both sites as well as Augustine Washington’s ironworks at Accokeek (Potomac) Furnace (1726~ 56) in Stafford County, part of the Principio Company.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2000.</p><br>
<p>Extensive archaeological investigations began in 2002 under the direction of David Muraca (formerly of Colonial Williamsburg) and Philip Levy of the University of South Florida. The goal of the excavations is to locate and understand the original Washington farm complex. In 2008, Levy and Muraca announced that one of three sites excavated yielded the original home site, including foundations of a 53 by 37 ft home. The home had suffered a small fire during George Washingtons lifetime. There also is a long-term goal of reconstructing the farm on the site. Ferry Farm also runs childrens programs and other public events.</p><br>
<p>It is located at 237 Kings Highway (Virginia Route 3), near Fredericksburg. A building associated with George Washingtons surveying work is listed at 712 King&#39;s Highway.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<h3>Wal-Mart Controversy</h3><br>
<p>Samuel Warren and Irma Warren bought the land in 1969. While the Warrens were interested in historical preservation, and kept it in the family for nearly 30 years. For many years the family enjoyed the property, but unfortunately, they needed to sell off some of the land. As a result, the Warren’s sought to rezone the land immediately as B-1 commercial lot. The Warren’s reached an agreement with Stafford county, the county agreed to rezoning a parcel of the land, and the Warren’s agreed to donate the 24 acres surrounding the Colbert house. The sale, however, marked the start of a long controversy between commercial interests and proponents of national heritage. Robert Siegrist entered the controversy and expressed an interest in maintaining the land that was recently donated to Stafford County. Siegrist maintained the property for 4 years until early morning of September 26, 1994 when a fire broke out at the Colbert house. The Stafford County quickly ended its relationship with Siegrist and looked for alternate applications of the property.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, the Walmart corporation sought the land surrounding the Washington Site, and worked to purchase it. Included in the purchase was a promise that the site heritage would be preserved through a columned plaza with “special tributes to George and the Cherry Tree.” However, there was a large opposition including Fredericksburg small business owners, local historical preservationists, and many national organizations such as Daughters of the American Revolution. The conflict came to a head on April 1, 1995 after the review board assigned to the task rejected Walmart’s offer.</p><br>
<h3>Archaeology</h3><br>
<p>The George Washington Foundation purchased the land in 1996 and since 2003 has supported archeological field school at the site. The summer excavations are l led by Philip Levy (associate professor of history at the University of South Florida) and David Muraca (who previously worked at Colonial Williamsburg). Digs are organized through university groups and consist of undergraduate and graduate volunteers. Archeologists and volunteers have found artifacts dating from the prehistoric period through the Civil War and beyond.</p><br>
<h3>The House</h3><br>
<p>In 2006-2008 the archeology team headed by Muraca and Levy, funded by the George Washington Foundation, found the cellar to, and thus the location of George Washington&#39;s boyhood home. Using the remains of the building and the artifacts with in they have dated the feature to the 1740s, the time when the Washingtons lived on the land.</p><br>
<h3>Foundation and Museum</h3><br>
<p>The George Washington Foundation now owns the land as well as Kenmore, the Fredericksburg home of Washingtons sister Betty and her husband Fielding Lewis. The GWF is funded by donors and grants and has been managing the land since the Walmart purchase. In addition to funding, staffing, cataloguing, and overseeing the sites excavations there are now plans to recreate the historical landscape and build a new museum on the site.</p><br>
<h4>Prehistoric</h4><br>
<p>Artifacts found at the Ferry Farm site have dated back to 10,000 B.C. This period of prehistoric artifacts continues on until 1,500 B.C. Artifacts from this period include hunting and gather tools, which prehistoric peoples used to hunt wildlife around and in the Rappahannock River. The land around Ferry Farm was rich in nutrients and populated with multiple animals.</p><br>
<p>"Such diversity in food sources required these groups to expand the types of tools they used."</p><br>
<p>Examples of artifacts that were found include spear points, stone axes, and quartz scrapers, which were used as tools for hunting.</p><br>
<h4>Pre-Colonial Life</h4><br>
<p>While evidence is scarce, artifacts have been dated back to 1,500 B.C. until 1,500 A.D. when Woodland Indians inhabited the land around current day Ferry Farm.</p><br>
<h4>Colonial Life</h4><br>
<p>Popular artifacts found from the Colonial Period include the ends of 18th century wig hair curlers.</p><br>
<p>" These were associated with maintaining wigs for George Washingtons younger brothers. The fashionable gentlemen of the late 18th century wore a wig- the single most expensive part of the gentry-class mans wardrobe."</p><br>
<h4>Civil War</h4><br>
<p>In 1862 the Civil War arrived at Ferry Farm leaving behind a variety of artifacts throughout the duration of the war. Such as objects from battles including bullets, ink bottles, buttons and medallions from uniforms to name a few.</p><br>
<h2>Ferry Farm in Stories and Myth</h2><br>
<h3>Cherry Tree</h3><br>
<p>Ferry Farm is the setting for some of the best known stories about George Washington, most particularly those brought to the American public by Mason Locke Weems, best known as Parson Weems, in the early 19th century. These include the anecdote, appearing first in the 1806 edition of Weemss Life of Washington, in which a 6-year-old George barked one of his father Augustines favorite English cherry trees with a new hatchet. Upon being confronted by his father, the boy confessed.</p><br>
<p>George Washingtons step-grandson, George Washington Parke Custis, published a newer version of the story in which George Washington tried to break his mothers new colt (horse). In this story, Washington rode the horse "so hard" that one of the horses blood vessel&#39;s burst, killing the horse. Like the cherry tree story, when confronted George Washington admitted to killing the horse.</p><br>
<p>Both stories celebrate George Washingtons honesty and share a theme of loss, which Washington was painfully familiar with after his fathers death and losing his opportunity to study abroad.</p><br>
<h3>Silver Dollar Toss</h3><br>
<p>It has also been claimed to be the site where George Washington "threw a silver dollar across the Rappahannock River." It is possible to "skip" a coin or flat rock across that area. Regardless, the river was considerably wider during this period than it is today, making the feat that much more difficult. Each year during the celebration of Washingtons birthday, townspeople are invited to attempt to recreate this event. In the summer of 2006, archaeology intern Jim Trueman duplicated Washingtons alleged throw and did it again the following summer to prove the first throw was not a fluke.</p><br>
<p>The Pentland Hills are a range of hills to the south-west of Edinburgh, Scotland. The range is around 20 miles  in length, and runs south west from Edinburgh towards Biggar and the upper Clydesdale.</p><br>
<p>Some of the peaks include:</p><br>
<p>Scald Law (579 m) (579 m)</p><br>
<p>Carnethy Hill (573 m) (573 m)</p><br>
<p>East Cairn Hill (567 m) (567 m)</p><br>
<p>West Cairn Hill (562 m) (562 m)</p><br>
<p>West Kip (551 m) (551 m)</p><br>
<p>Byrehope Mount (536 m) (536 m)</p><br>
<p>East Kip (534 m) (534 m)</p><br>
<p>Allermuir Hill (493 m) (493 m)</p><br>
<p>Castlelaw Hill (488 m) (488 m)</p><br>
<p>The hills span a number of council regions: from the City of Edinburgh and Midlothian in the north, south-west through West Lothian to the Scottish Borders and South Lanarkshire.</p><br>
<h2>Use</h2><br>
<p>The Pentland Hills Regional Park was designated in 1986. It covers an area of 90 km² (35 sq mi) at the northern end of the hills. The park, together with the rest of the hills, are used for a variety of recreational activities including hillwalking, mountain biking, horse riding, golf and skiing at the artificial ski slope at the Midlothian Snowsports Centre.</p><br>
<p>Today most of the land is upland pasture, along with a few forestry plantations. The Ministry of Defence have a rifle range at Castlelaw. Much of Edinburgh&#39;s water supply is from reservoirs in the hills, including Threipmuir, Harlaw, Clubbiedean, Torduff, Glencorse and Loganlea. A number of rivers rise in the hills, including the Water of Leith and the North Esk.</p><br>
<p>In the southern part of the hills is Little Sparta, the garden of the late artist and poet Ian Hamilton Finlay.</p><br>
<p>Settlements in or near the Pentlands include:</p><br>
<p>Edinburgh suburbs - Balerno (with Malleny Mills), Juniper Green, Colinton, Currie, Oxgangs, Fairmilehead, Swanston</p><br>
<p>Midlothian - Glencorse, Hillend, Nine Mile Burn, Eight Mile Burn, Penicuik, Silverburn,</p><br>
<p>West Lothian - Kirknewton, Livingston is also near.</p><br>
<p>Scottish Borders (traditional Peebleshire) - Carlops, West Linton</p><br>
<p>South Lanarkshire - Biggar, Auchengray, Carnwath, Dolphinton, Dunsyre, Garvald, Tarbrax</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>There is ample evidence of prehistoric settlement in the area, e.g. the hillfort and souterrain at Castle Law, and another at Caerketton. The hills were most likely settled, farmed and defended in the pre-Roman and Roman era by the local Celtic people known to the Romans as the Votadini.</p><br>
<p>About 20 m (66 ft) into Glencorse Reservoir lie the submerged ruins of the chapel of St Katherines in the Hope. The founding of the chapel is connected with the story of a mediaeval royal deer hunt. According to the story, King Robert the Bruce staked the Pentland Estate against the life of Sir William St Clair, with the outcome of the hunt of a white deer by the knight and his two hounds, Help and Hold&#39;, being the deciding factor. The dogs managed to bring down the deer, and in gratitude, and to mark the spot, Sir William had a chapel built in the glen.</p><br>
<p>The hills were the scene of an incident in 1666 following the Restoration of King Charles II when an outbreak of armed rebellion amongst Covenanters led to a small force of badly armed conventiclers being defeated at the battle of Rullion Green, after which the whole tragic episode was (incorrectly) named the Pentland Rising. The incident is commemorated by the "Covenanter&#39;s Grave", a cairn after which one of the drove roads across the hills is known (OS Grid reference NT078521).</p><br>
<p>The Diamantina Fracture Zone is an area of the south-eastern Indian Ocean seafloor. It has a range of ridges and trenches. It lies to the south of the mideastern Indian Ocean features of the Wharton Basin and Perth Basin, and to the south west of the Naturaliste Plateau.</p><br>
<h2>Escarpment</h2><br>
<p>Being parallel to the Southeast Indian Ridge, Diamantina Fracture Zone is not a real fracture zone in the sense of plate tectonics, but rather an escarpment, separating two oceanic plateaus. In fact its extension to the west is called Diamantina Escarpment. This is the southern border of the Broken Ridge Plateau. All these features are mirrored by corresponding topography on the other side of the Southeast Indian Ridge. Broken Ridge Plateau was formed at the ridge together with the Kerguelen Plateau.</p><br>
<h2>Exploration</h2><br>
<p>Diamantina Fracture Zone was first detected by and RV Argo in 1960. It is named after, which did further exploration in 1961.</p><br>
<h2>Bathymetry</h2><br>
<p>The Diamantina Deep is the zones deepest location, located about 1 125 km West-South-West of Perth, Western Australia, at 35&deg;S latitude, 104&deg;E longitude. This is not the deepest point in the Indian Ocean: the CIAs Physical Map of the World lists the Java Trench as such. On the western side of the Diamantina Fracture Zone at 33&deg;30&prime;S latitude, 101&deg;20&prime;E longitude is another, larger pit, named Dordrecht Hole, Dordrecht was the name of a vessel of the Dutch East India Company, which explored the Australian west coast in 1619 and discovered the Houtman Abrolhos.</p><br>
<p>The shallowest point in the area is the 1125-metre point in the Broken Ridge close to Ninety East Ridge.</p><br>
<p>The City Opera House is located at 106-112 Front Street in Traverse City, Michigan. It was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1971 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1891, entrepreneurs Perry Hannah, Charles Wilhelm, Tony Bartok, and Frank Votruba owned the property where the opera house now stands. They hired architect E. R. Prall of Pontiac, Michigan to design this structure, and builder John Wilhelm to construct it. At the time of construction, it was the first building in Traverse City to use electric lights. The City Opera House provided a 1200-seat performance space for traveling artists as well as a perfect setting for formal balls, such as an Installation Ball held in 1892.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, a local movie house leased the building and shuttered it to eliminate competition. In 1978, work began to raise money for restoration. In 1980, the owners gave the structure to the city, and restoration work began in 1985. In 2005, the bulk of a 30-year and 8.5 million dollar restoration was completed.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The City Opera House is a square, three-story, building constructed of red brick. It measures 110 ft on each side. The ground floor houses commercial tenants; the opera house proper is located on the upper floors. Since completion of the restoration, the City Opera house has seating for 710 people, arches with trompe l&#39;oeil clouds and a dome ornamented with angelic putti, a two-story oriel window, an acoustic stage shell, modern theatre rigging and complete facilities for catered events.</p><br>
<p>Mount Majura is a small mountain with an elevation of 890 m that is located in the northern suburbs of Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory, Australia. Mount Majura lies close to the more prominent Mount Ainslie and is the highest point within the urban boundaries of Canberra. Mount Majura is contained within part of the Canberra Nature Park.</p><br>
<h2>Canberra Nature Park</h2><br>
<p>Mount Majura is part of the Canberra Nature Park, lying at the eastern end of the suburb of, which is on the northeast edge of Canberra. At the summit of Mount Majura is a radar station and aircraft warning light for the nearby Canberra Airport. The station contains a primary and secondary radar system, as well as transmitters and receivers for Telstra, Optus, Vodafone and a repeater for the Canberra Amateur Radio Club. Canberra&#39;s North East electricity substation is also located near the base of the mountain and is accessed via walking paths on the Ainslie side. The road primarily serves the radar station and, unlike the road on Mount Ainslie, is unavailable to the public. However, there are popular walking trails which lead to the top of the mountain from and Hackett. There is also an extensive series of single track bicycle trails on the eastern side, in an area known as the Majura Pines. The hill is covered with native Australian trees, mostly eucalyptus, but is also home to a large number of highly sensitive rare plant species, including up to 26 species of terrestrial orchids.</p><br>
<p>Mount Majura&#39;s local volunteer park care group is known as the Friends of Mount Majura (FoMM).</p><br>
<p>Other large hills that are part of Canberra Nature Park include Mount Taylor, Mount Ainslie, Mount Mugga Mugga, Mount Stromlo and Black Mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Majura was named by Robert Campbell, one of the first major land owners when the area around the mountain was first settled. It is believed to be named after a location in India. However, the exact site is unclear. Campbell spent much of his life as a merchant trading between England, India and Australia. Some believe that Mount Majura is named after Majura Gate in the city of Surat. However this is unlikely since the Indian office of Campbell & Co. was located in the city of Kolkata.</p><br>
<p>The Tiger Inn  is one of the eleven active eating clubs at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn was founded in 1890 and is one of the "Big Four" eating clubs at Princeton (the others are The Ivy Club, University Cottage Club, and Cap and Gown Club), the four oldest and most prestigious on campus. Tiger Inn is the third oldest Princeton Eating Club. Its historic clubhouse is located at 48 Prospect Avenue, Princeton, New Jersey, near the Princeton University campus.</p><br>
<p>Members of "T.I." also frequently refer to the club as "The Glorious Tiger Inn."</p><br>
<h2>The Tiger Inn clubhouse</h2><br>
<p>The Tiger Inn clubhouse is the oldest of the Princeton Eating Club houses. It is both architecturally distinct, built in the Tudor style, and historically notable. "The Clubhouse is designed in the timbered style of the 15th century and modeled especially after an old inn in Chelsea.". The clubhouse was built in 1895 for an original club membership of 30 undergraduates. The clubhouse has been in continuous use since the facility first opened. The architect for the clubhouses original plan was G Howard Chamberlain. According to The Tiger Inns official history, "Princeton myth credits to Howard Crosby Butler, Class of 1892 (a member of Tiger Inn and Princetons first Professor of architectural history)." The clubhouses central hall was filled with massive antique furniture presented to the club by Mrs. T. Harrison Garrett; these furnishings remain in use to this day. The funding for the original clubhouse, the land, and the clubs other furnishings were provided by the clubs membership, although all at the time recognized the extraordinary support and contributions of the Garrett family.</p><br>
<p>Renovations to the clubhouse have continued since it was built in 1895. During 1922–1923 a room was added to the left of the front door and the second floor was remodeled; the second floor alterations were never used for their intended purpose as members quickly converted the new portion of the second floor space to a card room. In the fall of 1926 the clubhouse was substantially improved; during the six weeks of these alterations club members were required to take their meals at the surrounding clubs. By 1928 the kitchen had been moved to the south of the building. The changes to the clubhouse from 1926 to 1928 were well timed as this coincided with an expansion of the membership. The financing of the renovations placed Tiger Inn on the firm financial footing it would need to survive the Great Depression.</p><br>
<p>The distinctive clubhouse has recently undergone renovations, improvements and enlargements as part of its “21st Century Expansion and Renovation Project,” for which the commissioned architect was Connolly Architecture, Inc. The project was completed with the formal dedication of the new club facilities on the weekend of 11-11-11. Funded entirely by the clubs alumni, the expanded facilities include a new dining hall and improvements to the spaces normally reserved for social events. The new facilities provide a more suitable building to serve the clubs Active Membership, now up from 26 to over 150 in any given year, and club alumni exceeding 2000 in 2012. Fundraising for the completed project continues.</p><br>
<h2>Membership</h2><br>
<p>(see also "Notable Alumni" below)</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn is a selective club, meaning membership is awarded after successful completion of a process called bicker. During bicker, prospective members interact with current members who then convene to vote on whether the prospective members should "receive a bid," or be invited to join the club.</p><br>
<p>The club has designated its 26 original founding members as "Charter Members:" at the time of the club&#39;s founding, these members were known within the Princeton University community as "The Sour Balls." The Active Membership is that portion of membership that uses the clubhouse on a daily basis and is composed principally of Princeton undergraduates, although graduate students have also been active members from time to time. Alumni Members frequently return to the Tiger Inn. The club also has two honorific categories of membership to recognize and honor those who have had a positive and notable association with the club, whether as members of the Princeton University community or as individuals whose principal affiliation with the Princeton community is their association with the Tiger Inn.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn&#39;s membership was once described by F. Scott Fitzgerald in This Side of Paradise (1920) as "broad-shouldered and athletic, vitalized by an honest elaboration of prep-school standards." In a 1927 essay on Princeton for the magazine College Humor, Fitzgerald elaborated: "Tiger Inn cultivates a bluff simplicity. Its membership is largely athletic and while it pretends to disdain social qualifications it has a sharp exclusiveness of its own."</p><br>
<p>Fitzgeralds comments were written during his time at Princeton University, so the membership of each of the Eating Clubs was all male. Princeton first admitted women as undergraduates in 1969 and the various Eating Clubs eventually became coed. Debate over co-ed Eating Club membership on Prospect Avenue abounded from 1969 until 1991, during which Tiger Inn had been all-male. The club became the last selective club to offer membership to women, in 1991. Prior to the decision of the undergraduate club membership to open its membership to women, other selective Eating Clubs had gone to court to defend the practice of banning women from their ranks. For example, the New Jersey Supreme Court ruled in Frank v. Ivy Club that the failure to open membership to women violated the states anti-discrimination statute.</p><br>
<p>In modern times, the membership of The Tiger Inn is distinctly coed, and the clubs membership and leadership, including members of both its Graduate Council and the undergraduate officers have included many notable Princeton alumnae and female students, respectively. In 2015 Grace Larsen was elected as the clubs first female president. That same year Maria Yu was elected as treasurer, and Victoria Hammarskjold was elected as communication chair, thus making it the first time the club&#39;s undergraduate officers were gender-balanced, with three women and three men.</p><br>
<p>The full membership of the club, including all living alumni, have met four times to commemorate anniversaries of Tiger Inn. The highlight of the clubs fiftieth anniversary celebration was the publication of the clubs first official history, written by Charlie Mulduar and released in March 1940, just before Americas involvement in World War II. The clubs seventy-fifth anniversary was held on December 9, 1965, at the Hotel Roosevelt in New York. The celebrations for the 100th anniversary of the Club began in 1988 with a small informal meeting of 40 alumni at the Princeton Club of New York who began to plan the Centennial celebrations. The Centennial Celebrations peaked with the Club&#39;s Hundredth Anniversary Dinner held on October 20, 1990, at the Hyatt in Princeton, following which many of the alumni insisted on continuing celebrations at the clubhouse. The Centennial celebrations were concluded by the subsequent publication of the second club history entitled The Tiger Inn of Princeton, New Jersey, 1890–1997. In February, 2016 The Tiger Inn marked its 125th Anniversary with a Dinner held at the Westin in Princeton, followed by continued celebrations at the clubhouse.</p><br>
<h3>Notable contributions to sport</h3><br>
<h4>Olympic athletes</h4><br>
<p>Tiger Inn members acted to form the first American Olympics team for the first modern Olympic games in Athens in 1896. Most of the first American Olympic team came from Princeton, Harvard University and the Boston Athletic Association. Four Princetonians, including three Tiger Inn members, participated in those games. The TI members earned six medals in total: two gold, three silver medals, and one bronze; the four Princetonians earned 7 medals in total. The three TI members were Robert Garrett, Herb Jamison and Frank Lane; they were joined by Princetonian Al Tyler, who also medalled. These four Princeton athletes&#39; 7 medals helped the 1896 American Olympic team earn 20 medals in total. Team Member Garrett delivered the most unexpected upset of the 1896 Games when he won Gold in the Discus, outperforming his Greek rival to win the most symbolic sport carried over from the ancient Olympics to the modern Olympic games.</p><br>
<p>TI members continued to participate in the Olympics after the 1896 Athens games. Garrett returned to the Olympics for the 1900 Paris games where he won two bronze medals. He was joined in the Paris games by John Cregan who won a silver medal in the 800 meters. John DeWitt competed in the 1904 St. Louis games; he was joined there by A. M. Woods, who earned a silver medal.</p><br>
<p>Pete Raymond rowed in both the 1968 Mexico City and 1972 Munich games; he earned a silver medal in Munich.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn members have earned more than 11 Olympic medals. Garrett&#39;s lifetime record of 6 Olympic medals among Princeton athletes continues to stand.</p><br>
<h4>American football</h4><br>
<p>Tiger Inn members have been both Princeton football players, and professional football players. The College Football Hall of Fame lists many TI members in its ranks.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn alumni have returned to Princeton to serve as Head Coaches of Princeton&#39;s football program. As college football head coaches, Tiger Inn alumni through the class of 1900 compiled composite career coaching records of 175-31-5. They coached Princeton to at least one national championship. TI members who served as Princeton Football Head Coach include Garrett Cochran, Arthur Hillebrand and Robert Casciola. TI Members have also served as Head Coaches of Football at Annapolis, Berkeley, Bowdoin, Georgetown, and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, among other colleges.</p><br>
<p>Charlie Gogolak and Cosmo Iacavazzi are two prominent TI members who became professional football players.</p><br>
<h4>Other American collegiate sports</h4><br>
<p>Through the club&#39;s history Tiger Inn members have also featured prominently in other collegiate sports in which Princeton competes.</p><br>
<p>In 2012 the Princeton men&#39;s squash team won the National Collegiate Championship powered by the performances of three Tiger Inn members.</p><br>
<h3>Notable community contributions</h3><br>
<h4>Academia</h4><br>
<p>Tiger Inn&#39;s sole winner of a Nobel Prize, thus far, is economist Michael Spence, the winner of the 2001 Nobel Prize in Economics together with George Akerlof (a Lawrenceville graduate) and Joseph Stiglitz. During his illustrious career Spence has served as Dean of the Stanford Graduate School of Business and is presently Chairman of the Commission for Growth and Development.</p><br>
<p>Princeton Universitys School of Architecture was founded in 1919 through the efforts of Tiger Inn Charter Member Howard Clark Butler and his fellow faculty members. He became the School of Architectures Director in 1920. Professor Butler was only the second Princeton Professor to offer a course related to architecture, following the precedent set by Princeton Professor Marquand.</p><br>
<p>In addition to Spence, Tiger Inn has produced well over 100 members of Phi Beta Kappa. Its members have earned at least three Rhodes, and two Marshall, Scholarships. TI members serve as research scientists at the Bell Labs and NASA and in the research or "Think Tank" roles of such commercial organizations as international financial institutions and the BIG 4 accounting firms, among other organizations.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn alumni have served many universities, including Princeton, as faculty members and as non-faculty instructors and administrators. Spence has served Harvard University, New York University and Stanford University. Butler served Princeton as did noted philologist W K. Prentice. Chauncey Loomis was a Dartmouth professor, and from there, led 5 Arctic expeditions. James Harland was a professor of classics at University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. John Fine joined the Princeton faculty in 1940 from Yale as a professor of Classics and retired in 1972. Richard H Williams is a professor of History at Southern Methodist University. Samuel Armistead is a professor of Spanish language and literature at UC Davis.</p><br>
<p>Sean Smith is a Professor of Computer Science at Dartmouth. Joseph Haid is a professor at Wisconsin Polytechnique Institute.</p><br>
<p>Will Garwood continues to serve Princeton as Vice Chairman of Advisory Board to the James Madison Program On June 12, 2012, Robert J Hugin was elected a Charter Trustee of Princeton University</p><br>
<h4>Cultural contributions</h4><br>
<p>Tiger Inns members have been active in literature and the arts. Jesse Williams won the first Pulitzer Prize in Drama. Frank Taplin was President of the Metropolitan Opera in New York, the Cleveland Orchestra, and the Cleveland Institute of Music. Thomas Hoving was the Director of New Yorks Metropolitan Museum of Art. And Barry S Friedberg is the Chairman Emeritus of the New York City Ballet.</p><br>
<p>Jesse Williams, the author of Why Marry?, has been joined by several other Tiger Inn members as accomplished authors. William Edwards&#39; book Football Days remains the definitive account of American Football in the 19th century. Classics Professor John Fine wrote several books, including The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Samuel Armistead wrote Spanish Tradition in Louisiana, which remains the definitive study on the use of the Spanish language in that state. H K Twichell wrote Regeneration in the Ruhr: The Unknown Story of a Decisive Answer to Communism in Postwar Europe. Henry Owsley is co-author of the leading book in his field, Distressed Investment Banking: To the Abyss and Back.</p><br>
<p>Chauncey Loomis remains Tiger Inn&#39;s only Arctic explorer.</p><br>
<h4>Military</h4><br>
<p>Several members of the Tiger Inn have served the United States as uniformed officers of its Armed Forces. It should be noted that TI was founded just over 20 years after the end of the Civil War. TI members have served in the Spanish–American War, World War I, World War II, the Korean war, the Vietnam war, Desert Storm and the more recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, among other armed conflicts.</p><br>
<p>TI Members who served in World War I include Brigadier General Coulter, Medal of Honor recipient Gordon Johnston, and decorated World War I Flying Ace, "Ace" Vaughn.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn lists well over 30 members who gave their lives in the service of their country. The memory of many of these TI alums are honored through their portraits kept at the clubhouse, mainly in the upstairs Library.</p><br>
<h4>Elected and appointed offices</h4><br>
<p>TI members have also served their communities through various positions at the Federal, State and local levels. Tiger Inn members have served as United States Senator and United States Ambassador at the federal level, Speaker of the House in New Jersey at the state level, and Deputy Mayor of New York City at the local level. Senator John Danforth ranks as the senior-most elected politician as an Active Member of the club while a Princeton undergraduate. United States President Grover Cleveland accepted an Honorary Membership in Tiger Inn, making him the senior-most elected politician to have joined the club in this membership category.</p><br>
<p>TI alum Louis Le Guyader is among the first candidates ever to run for the new elective office of DEPUTE to the French National Assembly from his home in New York - his new electoral district was created under a change to the French Constitution in 2008 and is meant to represent French Citizens living in the United States and Canada. As such he is the first TI member ever to seek elective office abroad.</p><br>
<h4>Commerce</h4><br>
<p>Arthur M Wood was Chairman and C.E.O. of Sears and credited with its turnaround in the 1960s. He was also responsible for the building of Sears Tower in Chicago, whose last steel beam bears his signature. George H Love led the reorganizations and turnarounds at two major corporations, the Consolidation Coal Company and The Chrysler Corporation, where he was Chairman. Barry S Friedberg served as Head of investment Banking at Merrill Lynch, before its merger with Bank of America; under his leadership Merrill climbed to the top of the industry league tables in every category he managed.</p><br>
<p>Rudolph J. Schaefer ran his familys highly acclaimed Brooklyn brewery, the F & M Schaefer Brewing Company of Brooklyn, New York. His product, Schaefer Beer, was the worlds best selling beer until the mid-1970s.</p><br>
<p>Robert Hugin is Chairman and President of Celgene, the New Jersey pharmaceutical company. Michael Novogratz is President of the Fortress Investment Group</p><br>
<h2>Notable members</h2><br>
<p>G. "Jerry" Angullo - publisher of the only English language daily newspaper in Puerto Rico, The San Juan Star</p><br>
<p>Samuel G. Armistead - Professor Emeritus of Spanish Language and History, UC Davis.</p><br>
<p>Ralph Bard - Under Secretary of the Navy and Assistant Secretary of the Navy during World War II, Roosevelt Administration</p><br>
<p>Daniel Berkovitz - General Counsel of the CFTC, Obama Administration</p><br>
<p>Walter C. Booth - known as "Bummy," an American football coach serving as the head football coach at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (the Huskers), compiling a career record of 46-8-1.</p><br>
<p>R. Manning Brown, Jr. - former chairman of the board of New York Life Insurance Co. and former chairman of Princeton University&#39;s Board of Trustees</p><br>
<p>Howard Crosby Butler - Charter Member, one of the founders of Princeton&#39;s School of Architecture, and its Director from 1920</p><br>
<p>Robert Casciola - Head Football Coach at Princeton from 1973 to 1977.</p><br>
<p>Grover Cleveland - Honorary Member, President of the United States.</p><br>
<p>Garrett Cochran - head football coach at the University of California, Berkeley (1898–99), the United States Naval Academy (1900) and Princeton (1902), with a career coaching record of 29–5–3.</p><br>
<p>Richard Coulter, Jr. - Charter Member, Brigadier General in the USA Army in WWI; professional football player</p><br>
<p>John F. Cregan - Olympic athlete; participated in the 1900 Olympic games earning a silver medal</p><br>
<p>John Danforth - former United States Senator, Missouri; ordained priest in the Episcopal Church</p><br>
<p>John R. DeWitt - Olympic athlete, St Louis Games of 1904; College Football Hall of Fame</p><br>
<p>Selden Edwards - best-selling novelist, author of The Little Book and The Lost Prince, educator, and secretary of the Princeton class of &#39;63</p><br>
<p>William Hanford Edwards - author of Football Days, the definitive work on American Football in the 19th century; famous for saving the life of N.Y. Mayor William Gaynor by tackling his assailant.</p><br>
<p>Max Farrand - Charter Member, professor, first Director of the Huntington Library, past President of the American Historical Society</p><br>
<p>John V.A. Fine - Classics Professor at Princeton, noted author in Greek history</p><br>
<p>Barry S Friedberg - former Executive Vice President of Merrill Lynch, and Head of Investment Banking, Chairman Emeritus of the New York City Ballet</p><br>
<p>Robert Garrett - the first modern Olympic champion in the discus; organized the 4 Princetonians who competed in the 1896 Athens games; won two golds and two silvers in Athens, 1896, and two bronzes in Paris, 1900.</p><br>
<p>Will Garwood - President of Cypress Asset Management and, at Princeton, Vice Chairman of the Advisory Board of the James Madison Program.</p><br>
<p>Charlie Gogolak - football placekicker noted for his innovations; initially with the Washington Redskins and then the New England Patriots</p><br>
<p>Hy Gunning - Associate Member, played professional baseball with the Boston Red Sox; he was noted for batting left-handed and throwing right-handed.</p><br>
<p>J.P. Harland - Professor of Classics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill</p><br>
<p>John Grier Hibben - Honorary Member; President of Princeton, 1920–32; he opposed President Wilson&#39;s plans to replace the Eating Clubs with a system of residential quadrangles.</p><br>
<p>Arthur Hillebrand - Head Football Coach at Princeton, 1903–05, his record was 27-4 and the team out-scored opponents 669-85; the 1903 team was 11-0 and was national champion.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Hoving – former director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art</p><br>
<p>Robert J. Hugin - Chairman and President of Celgene, Inc. elected Charter Trustee of Princeton in June 2012.</p><br>
<p>Cosmo Iacavazzi - professional football player, a member of the New York Jets; inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.</p><br>
<p>Herbert Jamison - member of the first USA Olympic Team at the first modern Olympic games in Athens where he won a silver medal.</p><br>
<p>Gordon Johnston - Colonel, USA Army, recipient of the Medal of Honor, the highest military award of the USA head coach of the University of North Carolina (the Tar Heels) football team in 1896.</p><br>
<p>Philip King - American Football Player, notable as a college football coach, especially at Georgetown University, compiling a career record of 73-14-1.</p><br>
<p>Howard Krongard - known as "Cookie;" Head of the Office of the Inspector General of the Department of State; Bush "43" Administration.</p><br>
<p>Frank A. Lane - member of the first USA Olympic Team in Athens, 1896; technically, the first American to compete in the modern Olympiad; bronze medal winner</p><br>
<p>Louis Le Guyader - the first TI member to seek elective office outside the United States in a campaign to serve as a Depute in the French National Assembly in 2012</p><br>
<p>Chauncey C. Loomis - famous Arctic explorer who led 5 expeditions to the Arctic, and Dartmouth professor.</p><br>
<p>Donald Lourie - Under Secretary of State for Administration, Eisenhower Administration; declined a pro football career with the Cleveland Browns.</p><br>
<p>Roscoe Parke McClave - Head Football Coach, Bowdoin College; twice Speaker of the House, General Assembly of New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Albert G. Milbank - founding partner of the law firm Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy</p><br>
<p>Joshua Miller - founder of Resilient Youth Foundation as a teen; founder of startup atroundtable.com which is being referred to as "the next facebook for internet conversations among experts"</p><br>
<p>Roland Sletor Morris - American Ambassador to Japan, 1917–20.</p><br>
<p>Michael Novogratz – president of the Fortress Investment Group</p><br>
<p>Henry Furlow Owsley III - Wall Street financier, noted as co-author of the leading book in his field, Distressed Investment Banking: To the Abyss and Back and in 2014, "Equity Holders Under Siege: Strategies and Tactics for Distressed Businesses," Beard Books LLC</p><br>
<p>W.K. Prentice - Princeton Professor, noted philologist.</p><br>
<p>Marc Rayman - Project Manager of Deep Space 1, NASA</p><br>
<p>Pete Raymond - two time Olympic oarsman, won the silver medal in Munich in 1972; "a god among men."</p><br>
<p>Wayne Rogers - actor, "Trapper McIntyre" for three seasons on "M.A.S.H."</p><br>
<p>Rudolf J Schaefer - yachtsman and brewer, ran the F & M Schaefer Brewing Company of Brooklyn, New York.</p><br>
<p>Mawell "Max" Shaw - founder of Shawskaboy inc. and the Face Morpher and Pro Interval Timer iPhone Apps.</p><br>
<p>Michael Spence - a Nobel Prize winner in Economics; Rhodes Scholar; Former Dean of the Stanford Graduate School of Business.</p><br>
<p>Robert "Huck" Alston Stevenson - Charter Member, second headmaster of the Allen-Stevenson School the private elementary school in New York City, founded by his father</p><br>
<p>Frank E Taplin, Jr. - a Rhodes Scholar; President of the Metropolitan Opera</p><br>
<p>H K Twitchell - Executive director of Moral Re-Armament, an international religious movement founded in 1938 in London, where it was founded to reshape the world through absolute morality; author of "Regeneration in the Ruhr: The Unknown Story of a Decisive Answer to Communism in Postwar Europe," Princeton University Press</p><br>
<p>George Augustus Vaughn, Jr. - known as "Ace," a World War I Flying Ace: officially credited with downing 12 enemy planes and one balloon</p><br>
<p>Jesse Lynch Williams - Charter Member, prize winning author and dramatist, won the first Pulitzer Prize in drama in 1918 for the play Why Marry?</p><br>
<p>A. M. Woods - lacrosse player and Olympic Athlete, 1904 games, where he earned a silver medal.</p><br>
<p>John E. Zuccotti - former First Deputy Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<p>Zack Wall - actor, "The Village" (2004), "The Great New Wonderful" (2005), and "Coda" (2014).</p><br>
<p>Bikar Atoll  is an uninhabited atoll in the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. It is one of the smallest atolls in the Marshalls and located at {{coord|12|14|N|170|08|E|display=inline}}. Due to its relative isolation from the main islands in the group, Bikar has a largely undisturbed flora and fauna that has been allowed to exist in a relatively pristine condition.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>It is located 579 km north of Majuro Atoll, the capital of the Marshall Islands, 320 km South-southeast of Bokak, and 115 km north of Utirik, the nearest inhabited atoll. The land area is 0.5 km&sup2;, surrounding a 37.4 km&sup2; lagoon. It consists of 6 islets.</p><br>
<h2>Physical features</h2><br>
<p>The approximately diamond-shaped atoll measures up to 13 km north to south and up to 8 km across. Its six islets have a combined land area of less than 0.5 km&sup2; and enclose a shallow lagoon of 37 km&sup2;. The surrounding reef is continuous except for one narrow pass located on the western side. The major islets are Bikar, Jabwelo, Almani and Jaboero. Bikar, the largest, reaches a height of 6 meters above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Based on the results of drilling operations on Enewetak (Eniwetok) Atoll, in the nearby Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands, Bikar may include as much as 4600 feet of reef material atop a basalt rock base. As most local coral growth stops at about 150 feet below the ocean surface, such a massive stony coral base suggests a gradual isostatic subsidence of the underlying extinct volcano, which itself rises 10,000 feet from the surrounding ocean floor. Shallow water fossils taken from just above Enewetak&#39;s basalt base are dated to about 55 mya.</p><br>
<p>Low rainfall and high temperatures lead to arid conditions in which a fresh water Ghyben-Herzberg lens cannot form. The water at Bikar island is not as brackish as similarly arid Taongi Atoll, allowing coconuts planted by visiting islanders from Utirik Atoll to survive.</p><br>
<p>Like Taongi Atoll, the combination of an almost completely enclosed lagoon and waves driven over the reef by the prevailing northeastern trade winds results in the water level being perched some 0.5 m above the mean tide level.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Bikar is one of the driest of the Marshall Islands atolls, having a semi-arid character. Mean annual temperature is approximately 82 &deg;F. Mean annual rainfall is less than 45 in, and falls primarily during the July through October rainy season. Prevailing winds are north to north-easterlies.</p><br>
<h2>Vegetation</h2><br>
<p>Plant species of atoll forest include Pandanus tectorius, Lepturus repens, Cocos nucifera, Boerhavia repens, Pisonia grandis, Portulaca lutea, Triumfetta procumbens, Tournefortia argentea and Scaevola sericea, as well as areas of atoll scrub and vines. Much of the Pisonia forest noted in earlier surveys was devastated by a cyclone, perhaps Typhoon Mary in 1977. This is likely a naturally recurring event. A small number of coconut palms planted by visiting islanders survive. A 1952 survey found that they produced small nuts containing bitter milk.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Bikar&#39;s status as a major seabird nesting site was affected by a cyclone and the introduction of more aggressive rat species.</p><br>
<p>Twenty-three species of birds were found in a 1969 survey, of which 19 were observed during a follow-up count in 1988. Species breeding in larger numbers that year included the great frigatebird and red-footed booby. Their numbers appear reduced due to the destruction of the Pisonia forests. Other breeding species include the red-tailed tropicbird, white-tailed tropicbird, the masked booby, brown booby, white tern, brown noddy, and sooty tern.</p><br>
<p>Migrant birds include small numbers of the ruddy turnstone, wandering tattler, bristle-thighed curlew, lesser golden plover, and Pacific reef heron.</p><br>
<p>Bikar is also a major nesting site for the endangered green turtle, over 250 nesting sites having been observed in 1988.</p><br>
<p>The Polynesian rat is common on Bikar and Jabwelo. By 1993, a "population explosion" of non-Polynesian rats had been noted on the atoll, most likely introduced by Asian fishing trawlers operating illegally in the vicinity of Bikar. This raised concerns for the important sea turtle and bird nesting sites.</p><br>
<p>The coral fauna lacks diversity and shows signs of frequent storm damage. The corals include several genera not seen at Taongi Atoll, and the diversity of fish is much greater, including the two-spot red snapper, humpback red snapper, leopard grouper, and humphead parrot fish.</p><br>
<p>Shellfish include the black-lipped pearl oyster, bear paw clam, maxima clam, and the Trochus sea snail. No marine mammals have been seen in the lagoon.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Although humans migrated to the Marshall Islands about 2000 years ago, and Bikar was occasionally visited by the Marshallese, there is no evidence that there has ever been a resident human population. The lack of water and the susceptibility of the atoll to cyclone and storm disturbance indicate that it will probably remain uninhabited. The atoll has traditionally been used for hunting and gathering, particularly seabirds and turtles, by inhabitants of other atolls in the northern Ratak chain. Along with the other uninhabited northern Ratak atolls of Bokak (Taongi) and Toke, Bikar was traditionally the hereditary property of the Ratak atoll chain Iroji Lablab. The exploitation of abundant sea turtles, birds, and eggs was regulated by custom, and overseen by the Iroji.</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>The Russian brig Rurik, with Captain Otto von Kotzebue, visited in summer 1817 during a search for a north passage between western Russia and its North American territories.</p><br>
<p>The French corvette Danaide, Capt J. de Rosamel, visited the atoll in August 1840 during a hydrographical survey of islands in the Pacific.</p><br>
<p>In 1900, the Manchester, a four masted steel hulled cargo ship of 2851 tons with a load of kerosene, went missing at sea between New York City and Yokohama. Wreckage and signs of habitation were discovered on Bikar in 1901, suggesting that the ship had come to grief there, and that the survivors had pushed off in lifeboats shortly before the discovery. No sign of the crew or passengers has since been found.</p><br>
<h3>20th century to present</h3><br>
<p>In 1914, the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands, and transferred German government properties to their own, including Bikar. Like the Germans before them, the Japanese colonial administration (the South Pacific Mandate) did not attempt to exploit the atoll, and the Northern Radak Marshallese continued to hunt and fish unmolested. Following the end of World War II, the island came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. In 1951, the U.S. Geological Survey and the Army Corps of Engineers sponsored an expedition to Bikar and Taongi Atolls, to characterize their primeval environment.</p><br>
<p>While en route from the US to Asia in April, 1953, LST 1138, later commissioned as , dropped anchor at Bikar to search for rumored Japanese stragglers. The landing party found no signs of any current occupants.</p><br>
<p>In 1954, the fallout plume from the Castle Bravo nuclear test passed over Bikar about 20 hours after the shot. Based on ash from plant samples taken on March 9, the atoll was contaminated by about 1,400,000 d/m/gm of radioactive material, compared with 35,000,000 d/m/gm from the most contaminated soil samples at Rongelap Atoll, and 950 d/m/gm at Majuro Atoll, several hundred miles south of the fallout pattern. This experience led to a pre-planned aerial survey of atolls adjacent to the subsequent March 27 Castle Romeo test, timed at one and four hours after the shot. The aircraft were equipped with gamma radiation detectors designed to measure ground contamination from altitudes of 200 to 500 feet. An overflight of Bikar Island measured 0.1 mrem/hr (1 μGy) an hour after the shot, rising to 15 mrem/hr (150 μGy) three hours later.</p><br>
<p>In 1962, 19 Japanese fishermen from the fishing boat Daitei Maru No. 15 were marooned on Bikar Atoll for several days before being rescued by the U.S. Coast Guard.</p><br>
<p>A 1981 study of fish and invertebrates within the lagoon found that the level of radio-nucleotides in muscle tissue was within the range found in fish products imported to the US and Japanese markets. The worldwide source of seafood-borne radio-nucleotides is a result of atmospheric nuclear testing since 1945, and therefore any residual activity from the 1950s Castle series of tests contributes only a small fraction of the contamination within the lagoon&#39;s sea life.</p><br>
<p>Currently, no archaeological remains of Polynesian habitation have been identified. The almost completed corroded wreck of a Japanese fishing boat lies in the north fork of the reef passage.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
